Psych 111 Exam 3

• Universal aspects of lifespan development from conception through death;
• Identifies cultural variations
• Explores physical, cognitive, social and emotional development

• Conception-2 weeks
• Zygote = fertilized egg
• Placenta = structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus from the mother's bloodstream; allows waste to pass out

• 2-8 weeks
• Head, face and neck develop
• Buds for limbs form and grow
• Major organs/digestive system differentiating
• Heartbeat begins

8 weeks - birth

• Digestive organs begin to function
• Buds for teeth form
• Sex organs develop rapidly
• Arms/fingers move

• Face looks human
• Lower body outgrows head
• Bones are defined

• Fingernails and toenails appear
• Lanugo: fine, wooly hair over body
• Vernix: waxy coating collects

• Eyebrows/lashes well defined
• Eyes completely formed

Fetus is capable of life outside the uterus

• Fat is deposited for later use
• Fingernails beyond fingertips
• Lanugo is shed
• Myelination of brain takes place
• Chief organs increase functioning
• Vernix covers body

Head to feet development

Center moving outward development

Harmful toxins that affect development resulting in defect, damage or anomaly

Certain drugs can alter development - ex] Thalidomide

Prolonged stress is linked with prematurity and low birth rate

Mild stimulant; increases fetal activity; low birth weight, increased SIDS

Low birth weight, disturbed sleep in newborns, reduced attention to environment

Premature birth weight, tremulous behavior, poor sleep, poor sucking and feeding, risk of SIDS

• "Crack babies":
• Premature size/weight, tremulous, high pitched crying, respiratory & regurgitation problems, rigidity, withdrawal symptoms, deformities

• Presence of more than one disorder
• Abuse of multiple substances is likely

• Leading teratogen in the US causing mental retardation:
• Physical Symptoms:growth retardation, head and facial abnormalities, microcephaly, skeletal, brain, & heart damage
• Behavioral Symptoms: poor impulse control, poor attention, hyperactivity, cognitive deficits

May be a factor in birth defects and/or certain developmental disabilities

• Poor fixation ability
• Limited ability to discriminate color
• Estimated visual acuity of between 20/200 and 20/400
• Preference for human faces

Fetus can hear sounds around 6 months in-utero: recognize mother's voice

Both present at birth, preference for sweet

Heat, cold, pressure, and pain all present at birth

Inborn, automatic responses to a particular form of stimulation

Survival value, stroke cheek and baby will turn head toward the stimulation

Basis for complex motor skills, with bare feet touching floor infant will mimic a stepping response (disappears around 2 months)

Place a finger in mouth and baby will suck; permits feeding

Shine a bright light or clap, they will close eyelids. Protects from strong stimulation.

Stroke the heel to see reactions of the toes which flex/fan out; normal in infants. If persists, can indicate neurological problems

• Gross: walk rhythmically, jump, hop, push a riding toy with feet
• Fine: remove simple clothing items, start to use a spoon

• Gross: walks upstairs alternating feet, catches ball by trapping in chest, rides a tricycle
• Fine: fasten/unfasten large buttons, uses scissors, copies lines, circles, draws tadpole person

• Gross: walks downstairs alternating feet, runs smoothly, catches ball with hands, rapid/smooth steering
• Fine: uses a fork, cuts with scissors on kines, copies triangles, and some letters

• Gross: increases running speed, true skipping, ride bicycle
• Fine: uses knife to cut food, tie shoes, draw 6 part person, copies words and numbers

• Boys tend to be ahead of girls in force and power
• Girls tend to be ahead in fine and gross motor skills (good balance)

Identified three basic temperaments for infants: difficult, slow to warm, and easy

Relatively constant basic disposition which is inherent in a person that underlies and modulates his/her behavior

Often wail, cry, and are negative in new situations; eat and sleep irregularly

Often inactive, adapt slower, and can be withdrawn and show negative moods

Cheerful, adaptable, easily establish routines

• The match between the characteristics of the infant and his/her family is critical to development
• Some are better matches than others

• The affectional bond between an infant and its caretaker
• Studies by Ainsworth in her attachment paradigm - still being used today
• The "strange situation" allows researchers to assess attachment relationships
• Mothers are the most common first object of attachment
• Initial attachments can occur with the mother and another person at the same time
• The number of a child's attachments increase rapidly

Infants express their wish to be attached by wishing to be close to their caretaker - when said caretaker departs, the infant shows signs of distress = separation anxiety

• Develops when infants are around 6-7 months ending around 18 months. If a stranger approaches, the infant becomes afraid and reaches for the caregiver
• Structure of the "Strange Situation"

• Child uses the parent as a safe base to explore, when separated the child may not cry during absence, seek contact when the parent returns, decrease crying if present
• ~65% of US infants

• Unresponsive to parent when present, no distress when she leaves, reacts to strangers similarly as to parent, slow to greet parent when she returns
• ~20% of US infants

• Seek closeness with parent, fail to explore, upon return, display anger, resistant behavior, cannot be comforted
• ~10-15% of US infants

• Greatest amount of insecurity. In reunion, show disorganized, confused behavior. Seem confused, glazed, and spacey. Mothers are more avoidant and inconsistent with a lack of sensitivity to infant's needs
• ~3-5% of US infants

Studied parenting styles and child outcomes

• Restrictive parenting; insist on obedience, rigid rules; no explanations and insensitivity.
• Preschoolers were moody, easily annoyed, unfriendly, and less motivated

• Assume control with flexibility; reasonable demands; provide reasons for rules/decisions
• Preschoolers were cheerful, socially responsible, achievement oriented, and cooperative

• Accepting and lax with few demands, little monitoring; few controls
• Preschoolers were impulsive, aggressive, sassy, self-centered, low in independence and achievement

• Maccoby
• Removed or hostile parenting; overwhelmed with own stressors, have little time or energy to parent
• Children were high in aggression, had temper tantrums, performed poorly in the classroom

• Reared monkeys in isolation or with a surrogate mother
• After 6 months sent back to colony
• Isolated monkeys showed indifference, were terrified or were aggressive with other monkeys, failed to form relationships with the opposite sex, were abusive to offspring
• Hypothesized that animals and humans need warmth and comfort as a primary need along with the basic biological ones

• Arena for exercising independence from adults and adult control
• Equal footing relationship
• Help translate and establish trends/group belonging, behavior codes
• Serve as role models
• Provide emotional support

Certain body parts grow at different speeds during adolescence leading to a lack of proportion

• Final maturation occurs during late adolescence
• Responsible for organization, planning, emotional regulation, and impulse control

First occurrence of menstruation

First occurrence of ejaculation

• Males have positive-self concepts from it
• Females have a greater chance of depression, anxiety, and eating disorders

• Way of thinking that the world is focused on themselves
• Elkind

• Belief that everyone in the environment is concerned with the behavior/appearance of him/herself
• Elkind

• View him/herself as somehow unique or heroic
• Elkind

False sense that he/she can't be harmed

For issues regarding finances, education and career, religion and politics - today's adolescents are more similar to their parents

Occur mostly about chores and dress styles (more than drugs or sex)

• How a child thinks, including reasoning, remembering, and problem solving
• Criticized for underestimating children's abilities, not focusing enough on individual differences; much research still supports hsi theories/beliefs

How to fit new info into the present system of knowledge

Existing structures don't fit so a child must develop new schemas

• Birth-2 years
• Infants learn through concrete motor actions; by touching, tasting and smelling
• Accomplish object permanence at 6 months
• Develop capacity for mental imagery
• Organize information into categories
• Increasingly able to use purposeful activity

• 2-7 years
• Gradually improve in mental images
• Can pretend
• Action oriented
• Develop representational thought
• Have NOT mastered conservation - basic properties of an object remain stable even if superficial properties change
•          -Centration: focus on one aspect of a problem and neglect other aspects
•          -Irreversibility: inability to envision reversing an action
•          -Egocentricism: thinking characterized by a limited ability to share another person's point of view (if I know it, everyone knows it)

• 7-11 years
• The child performs operations on tangible objects and events
• Show increased flexibility in thinking
• Can begin to see cause and effect
• Masters reversibility and decentration
• Can retrace thoughts
• Assessed with hierarchical constructs

• 12 years and up
• Begin to see abstract reasoning
• Understand metaphor and deductive reasoning
• Become more systematic in thinking
• Can discuss moral values

• Theory of lifespan development
• Believes each stage involves a psychosocial crisis: a transition which is organized around social relationships and that personality is determined by these stages
• 8 Stages: Year 1, Years 2/3, Years 4-6, Adolescence, Early Adulthood, Middle Adulthood, Late Adulthood

• Studied moral development using the Heinze dilemma. Found various stages of moral development based on responses to this and similar situations
• 6 Stages, 3 categories: Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional

• Basic info processing skils
• More likely to decline with age

• Application of accumulated knowledge
• Remains more stable through aging

• Maintaining a sense of control over one's life leads to greater psychological well-being in the elderly
• Nursing home experiment

• Studied traits using factor analysis
• Developed the 16 Personality Factors Questionnaire
• Examples: Reserved-Outgoing, Relaxed-Tense, Trusting-Suspicious

• Openness
• Conscientiousness
• Extraversion
• Agreeableness
• Neuroticism

• Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory
• Focus on the influences of early childhood
• Emphasis on unconscious motives/conflicts
• Primary focus on sexual and aggressive urges

• Impulses
• Dominated by pleasure or to avoid pain

"Voice of Reason" mediator between the Id and Superego, helps find compromises

• Moral component of personality
• Rigid standards

• Oral (birth-1 year): sucking, swallowing, biting [fixation leads to lasting concerns with dependence and independence, pleasure from eating, drinking, and other oral activities]
• Anal (1-3 years): expelling/retaining feces [fixation yields orderliness, stinginess, stubbornness]
• Phallic (3-5 years): touching penis or clitoris, Oedipus complex [fixation leads to difficulty feeling closeness, male fear of castration or female penis envy]
• Latency (5/6-puberty): sexual interests suppressed
• Genital (puberty onward): sexual contact with other people

• Responses to anxiety which is caused by internal conflicts; attempts to reduce distress of anxiety/guilt
• Displacement: displace emotions on others
• Rationalization
• Denial (least adaptive usually)

• Analytical psychology
• Freudian influenced

Material which one has repressed or forgotten from personal experiences

Traces of inherited memories from one's ancestral past; archetypes or images and thoughts with universal meaning (ex: water)

• Motivation for superiority stressed
• Universal attempt to improve oneself and master life's challenges

Everyone must overcome feelings of weakness in comparison to competent adult or sibling

Efforts to develop one's own abilities in response to inferiorities

Attempts to "conceal" one's own feelings of inferiority

• Bandura
• Reinforcement history and cognition influence behavior
• We see what we expect to see
• We place ourselves in places which will confirm our beliefs

• Belief one can set out to accomplish tasks/goals
• Acquired from 4 sources:
• Mastery of new skills, overcome obstacles
• Successful or competent role models
• Positive feedback and encouragement
• Awareness of feelings/manage responses

People believe they are responsible for what happens to them

People believe their lives are controlled by luck, fate, or other people

• People express particular traits in particular situations
• Most likely to see consistency within these similar situations
• Some traits are more situationally determined

• A goal of humans is to be self-actualized; a basic hierarchy of needs exists. Innate drive towards personal growth
• Often seen as a pyramid of needs:
• Bottom to top:
• Physiological needs
• Safety and security needs
• Belongingness and love needs
• Esteem needs
• Cognitive needs
• Aesthetic needs
• Need for self-actualization

• Accepts the self-actualizing tendency, explores individuals who do not function well
• Looked at the relationship between the self (one's conscious feelings/views of self) and the person (sum of experiences, feelings, perceptions, and wishes)

When sense of self and the person are consistent it allows positive functioning

Sense of self and person in conflict

Attempt to resolve conflict; accept one may have acted badly and still be a good person; accepts one in a positive and accepting manner

• Round, soft body, few muscles
• Tolerant, calm, needs affection, good humored, sociable

• Muscular, upright, firm, mature
• Adventurous, competitive, less empathetic, desire for power, love of risk

• Skinny, thin, delicate, few muscles, young appearance
• Shy, introverted, self-conscious, inhibited, socially anxious

• Personality is determined by a large extent to one's genes
• All personality emerges from 3 higher order traits:
• Extraversion = being sociable, assertive and lively
• Neuroticism = anxious, tense, moody, low self-esteem
• Psychoticism = egocentric, cold, impulsive

• Explores our need to use self-esteem as a buffer against anxiety over our own mortality
• When people are reminded of their own mortality:
•       -Subjects give harsher penalties to rule breakers
•       -Give greater rewards to those upholding cultural standards
•       -Respond more negatively to those critical of their country
•       -Show more respect for cultural icons (flag)

The pursuit of a goal is prevented

• A choice must be made between two desirable goals
• Least stressful type of conflict

A choice must be made between two unattractive goals

A choice must be made about to achieve a goal which has both positive and negative attributes

Social readjustment scale which applies points to stressful changes in someone's life that can be added up to determine how stressed someone is

• All types of stressful situations lead to a similar stress response consisting of three stages:
• Alarm: the body releases adrenal hormones, sympathetic nervous system is activated
• Resistance: body is on 'high alert'
• Exhaustion: increased physiological vulnerability to stress

• Displaced Aggression: harmful act to someone verbally or physically who is not actually the true "object" of hostility
• Catharsis: release of emotional tension
• Self-Indulgence: compensate for deprived/frustrated feelings by trying to promote a feeling of satisfaction in another area

• Problem focused: how to change the situation
• Emotion focused: how to change perceptions/reactions to the situation
• Optimism
• Social Support

• Compensation
• Denial
• Fantasy
• Identification
• Intellectualization
• Isolation
• Projection
• Rationalization
• Reaction Formation
• Regression
• Repression
• Sublimation

• Competitive, impatient, and more prone to aggression
• 2x the risk of disease as Type B

More relaxed, easy going, less quick to anger

• Smokers have a significantly shorter life expectancy than non-smokers
• Lung cancer, heart disease, as well as other cancers, hypertension and emphysema are all smoking related illnesses
• Smokers underestimate the health risks of smoking
• Smokers overestimate their ability to quit (long term success only 25%)

• Declining health
• Loss of family and friends
• Employment and financial problems
• Alienation from the larger society
• Loneliness

Any behavior or emotional state that causes distress or suffering, is maladaptive and disturbs relationships and the greater community

• Impairment in communication skills and social interactions
• Repetitive Behaviors

Higher level communication skills, significant social impairment (facial feedback training)

• Inattention, impulsivity and/or hyperactivity which is inappropriate for a child's particular developmental age
• ~5% of school aged children
• More likely to be male
• Genetic link/runs in families
• Multimodal treatment approach: drugs and behavioral interventions

• Violent social norms
• Physical aggression
• Cruelty to animals
• Lack of remorse
• May be a precurser to antisocial personality

• Multiple motor and 1 or more vocal tics
• Occur many times a day nearly every day or intermittently over a period of more than 1 year
• Onset before age 18
• Does NOT need to interfere with functioning for diagnosis

• Continuous feelings of worry, anxiety, dread/foreboding
• Restlessness
• Difficulty concentrating
• Irritability
• Muscle tension
• Sleep disturbance

• Anxiety resulting from a clear/predictable danger or event
• Reliving trauma in thoughts or dreams
• Psychic numbing
• Increased physiological arousal

• Recurring attack of intense fear or panic accompanied by feelings of impending doom or death
• Symptoms: trembling, shaking, dizziness, chest pain, heart palpitations, hot/cold flashes, sense of losing control

fear of being in a situation where the person will be observed by others

Fear of being alone in public places

fear of thunder and lightning

Fear of peanut butter sticking to the roof of the mouth

Fear of long words

Fear of school

A recurrent, persistent, and unwished for thought

Repetitive ritualized behavior in which people feel a lack of control over it

• Sadness, lethargy, inactivity and feelings of helplessness and hopelessness
• Genetic link
• Behavioral changes: slow motor reactions
• Cognitive changes: cognitive distortions
• Physical changes: alters immune functioning

• Abnormally high level of energy
• Great/special plans
• Faulty thinking
• Impulsive behavior
• Grandiose schemes
• Pressured speech
• Spending large amounts of money
• Outbursts of anger

• Cycle through depression and Mania
• Responsive to: lithium and other mood stabilizers
• Problem with compliance: miss the high
• Can be adaptive, healthy and make significant contributions to society

History of diverse physical complaints which are psychological in origin

Excessive preoccupation with health concerns/worry about developing illnesses

Loss of physical function with no organic basis, usually a specific area or system affected

Rigid, maladaptive traits that cause great distress or lead to an inability to get along with others or to function well in the world

• Suspicious
• Argumentative
• Reluctant to confide in others because of fears that information will be "used against" him/her
• Looking out for trickery
• Blame others and bears grudges

• Likes to break rules/laws
• Deceitful
• Gladly take advantage of people
• Lacks remorse
• Can appear charming/friendly
• Often intelligent
• History of conduct disorder

• Manipulative
• Stable pattern of unstable relationships
• Frantic efforts to avoid "abandonment"
• Splitting: all good or bad
• Self-mutilating behaviors
• Impulsivity
• Sexual promiscuity
• Quick to anger

• Overly dramatic
• Everything is a trauma
• Attention seekers
• Seductive
• Not genuine
• Dependent on others

• Feelings of grandiosity
• Sense of privilege
• Feels special
• Expect favors from others
• Takes advantage of others and lacks empathy

• Perfectionist
• Preoccupied with details
• Rules are essential
• Particular
• Serious and formal
• Work gives pleasure

• Excessively sensitive to rejection
• Fearful of humiliation or shame
• Socially withdrawn
• Wishes to be accepted by others but avoids opportunities based on anxiety

• Psychosis or condition involving distorted perceptions of reality and an inability to function in most aspects of life
• Typical age of onset 17-25
• Strong genetic component
• Positive symptoms (presence of a distortion or bizarre behavioral symptom): bizarre delusions, hallucinations, heightened sensory awareness, disorganized incoherent speech and behavior
• Negative symptoms (loss of functioning or ability; behavioral deficits): poverty of speech, emotional flatness, loss of motivation, social withdrawal, apathy, impaired attention

Predominately involving delusions of persecution and grandeur

• Motor disturbances including a form of withdrawal involving motionless behavior
• May also have agitated and random motor activity

Emotional indifference, frequent incoherence, babbling and giggling

Has a mixture of the symptoms of the other three sybtypes

• Inability to remember important personal info; cant be explained by ordinary forgetfulness
• Fugue state: no concept of self/can take on a whole new identity/life

• The appearance of 2 or more distinct identities within one person
• At least 2 recurrently take control over behavior
• Inability to recall important information
• Controversial in the field of psychology

• Alter the biochemistry of the brain
• ADHD meds: ritalin, concerta, adderal (stimulants, dopamine); straterra (norepinephrine) [possible increase in suicidal thoughts]
• Antidepressants: prozac, zoloft
• Lithium for bi-polar disorder
• Anti-anxiety: valium, xanax (addictive)

Lesion/destroy problematic areas of the brain to eliminate disruptive behaviors (lobotomy; OCD surgery)

• Beneficial to those with severe depressions which are not responsive to medication/therapy
• Can lead to memory impairment
• Unclear on why/how it works

Saying whatever comes to mind

Develop relationship with therapist based on other people in one's life

• Looks at unconscious conflicts, defense mechanisms and symptom resolution in a broader manner than Freud
• Still a form of "talk therapy"

• Belief that people need to be supported and set the pace of their own therapy (Rogers)
• Unconditional positive regard
• Help build self-esteem and feelings of acceptance with genuineness and empathy

• Step by step process of eliminating a fear
• Uses counterconditioning: pair relaxation techniques with the feared situation

• Substitutes punishment for the reinforcement of a bad habit
• Ex] Antabuse makes you violently vomit when you drink - used for alcoholics

A form of exposure therapy

Immersion into the feared situation/circumstance as an intervention to decrease the phobic/feared response

• Help identify beliefs and expectations which maintain problems and conflictions
• Challenges distortions in thinking
• Identify faulty thinking and encourage realistic reappraisal with therapist support
• Includes a variety of behavioral elements including modeling and rehearsal

• Focus on the dynamics in the family as a system with different rules, roles, and motivations
• Treat each person as integral to the bigger system; "identified patient" is a symptom bearer in the family
• Change one part of the system and the whole system must adapt

• People with similar or different problems come together to provide support strategies
• Normalization is a key component
• Can aid in social skills, modeling of adaptive strategies, and encourages empathy
• Efficient use of resources - one therapist for like 20 people

• Various therapies see similar success rates, though this is challenged statistically (regression to the mean, placebo effect [even the thought of being in therapy helps a little])
• Different beliefs that some therapies do better for some disorders than others
• A positive therapeutic relationship to the therapist can be vital

Examines the influence of social processes on the way people think, feel, and behave

A positive or negative evaluation reaction toward a person, object, or concept

The durability (if it lasts over time) and impact (if it impacts behavior or thoughts) of an attitude

Initial perceptions make a difference; and have shown strong effects

• Found that a person presented with positive traits first was found to be more sociable and happier
• When people were alone they got the answer correct
• When in a group, only 20% appeared to remain completely independent in their responses

The presence of others energizes performance (Triplett)

• Shared expectations about thoughts,feelings, or behavior
• Can vary by time and place
• Culturally sensitive

A set of norms which characterize how people in specific social positions should behave

Norms accompanying different roles may clash

The adjustment of people's behavior, attitudes, and beliefs to a group

Follow the opinions of those we believe have accurate knowledge and believe they are doing it right

Conform to obtain rewards that come from being accepted by other people while trying to avoid rejection

See others engaging in a behavior, likely to be influenced by it

Conformity increased from 5 to 35% as group size increased

When someone else dissents, he/she serves as a model and it significantly reduces conformity

• Attitudes do not necessarily determine or predict our behavior
• Attitudes and behavior are influenced by several factors
• Attitudes influence behavior more strongly when the counteracting situational factors are weak
• Attitudes have a greater influence over our behaviors when we are aware of them and when they are strongly held
• General attitudes predict general behaviors and specific attitudes predict specific behaviors

The deliberate effort to change or impact one's attitude

The golden rule: to get you to comply with a request you are given an unsolicited favor or gift

Persuader makes a large request expecting you to reject and then makes a smaller request believing you will be more likely to comply

Persuader gets you to comply with a small request and then presents a larger request thinking you will now be more likely to comply

Persuader gets you to commit to an action, then before you perform it the 'cost increases'

A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

• Variables which influenced obedience:
•    -Remoteness of the victim
•    -Closeness and legitimacy of authority figure
•    -Cog in the wheel
•    -Personal characteristics: differences were weak or nonconsistent
•    -Cultural differences: similar results cross-culturally
• Ethical issues of the research and the need to replicate this study

People are less likely to provide  help in groups

When others are present, the responsibility to help is divided among those present

• Bystander won't help if they don't notice
• Decide if it's an emergency
• If an emergency - decide whether to intervene
• Take on responsibility - begin to question self-efficacy and confidence
• Intervene regardless of cost

• People who are more similar to us
• Women over men
• Perceived Responsibility: we are more likely to help those who we view as "true victims" based on our own personal assumptions

Helping behavior that decreases one's own fitness

• Proximity
• Similarity in attitudes, values and interests
• Same level of attractiveness

People tend to opt for those at their same level of attractiveness

• Passionate Love: intensely emotional and physical
• Compassionate Love: deep affection, share emotional intimacy and friendship

• Intimacy: sense of closeness and sharing
• Passion: emotional, physical
• Commitment: efforts to maintain the relationship with difficulties and costs

Negative attitudes towards people based on their membership in a group

Characteristics we attribute to people based on their membership to a group

Treat people differently and unfairly based on group affiliation

People tend to overestimate the number of confirmations of an association between social traits

We attribute our successes to personal factors and our failures to situational forces

We assume others' failures are due to personal or internal factors (opposite to the self-serving bias)

We categorize ourselves as "in group" or "out group" and view our members in more favorable terms

Believe those in the "out group" are all the same, although we see the diversity within our own group

• Took 2 groups of boy scouts to a camp and divided them into 2 groups - Eagles and Rattlers - and had them compete in games. They started raiding each others' camps and messing with each other - created an in/out group mentality
• When faced with a common problem (like a need for water) they overcame this mentality and worked together to solve it
• Working on a common task or goal (superordinate goal) is an effective way to reduce in/out group conflict