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Functions of Marriage
- -Regulates sexual access
- -Creates a family
- -Expands social group
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Define Marriage
- -sexually cohabiting certain gender couples
- -Parents and children
- -Families of the bride and groom
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Reasons for regulating Sexual Access
- -Limits sexual competition
- -Provides stability for children
- -Allows for stable economic exchange
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Explain Incest Taboos
- -Prohibit sexual relations between relatives
- -Universal to most cultures
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What are the exceptions of Incest Taboos
–Brother-sister marriages among royalty in ancient Egypt, traditional Hawaiian society
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Reasons for Incest Taboo
- -Avoids inbreeding
- -Prevents disruption in the nuclear family
- -Directs sexual desires outside the family
- -Forces people to marry outside family and create larger social community
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Marriage provides a stable structure...
- -The male can provide food and protection
- -The female can nurse and nurture the children
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How does Marriage expands social groups?
- -Links different families & kin groups
- -Cooperation beyond husband-wife pair
- -Allows people to share resources
- -Benefits survival of the species
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What is Exogamy?
- -Rules specifying that person must marry outside a particular group
- -Almost universal
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What is Endogamy?
-Rules that marriage must be within a particular group
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Preferential Marriage Rules (definition and two examples)
-Rules about preferred categories of relatives for marriage partners
- 1. Cross cousins (children of parent’s siblings of opposite sex)
- 2.Parallel cousins (children of parent’s same-sex siblings)
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Two types of Preferential Marriage Rules
Levirate and Sororate
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Levirate
A preferential marriage rule of man marrying a widow of a deceased brother
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Sororate
A preferential marriage rule when a man's wife dies and her sister is given to him as a wife
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What is Polygamy?
A rule allowing more than one spouse
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What is Polygyny?
A rule permitting a man to have more than one wife at a time
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What is Polyandry?
A rule permitting a woman to have more than one husband at a time
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Anthropologists identify two basic types of families...
- 1. Nuclear families organized around relationship between husband and wife
- 2. extended family is based on blood relations extending over 3 or more generations
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Households
- -A domestic group, or household, is not the same as a family
- -Households may also include people who aren’t related
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Blended Families
-Include previously divorced spouses & their new partners, children from previous marriages, and multiple sets of grandparents and other similar relations
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Composite Family
-Aggregates of nuclear families linked by a common spouse
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What is patrilocal?
A system under which a bride lives with her husband’s family after marriage
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Extended Family
- -Blood relations extending over 3 or more generations
- -Provides sense of participation & dignity for older family members
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Bronze Age
- -period of time in Old World between Stone Age and Iron Age
- -Name is reference to material from which tools and weapons were made
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Chiefdom
-where there is a centralization of political and economic power over several communities by one leader with little to no social stratification
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Primary states
-states that developed without any outside influence or contact from other state societies
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7 known primary states
Mesopotamia, Egypt, Nubia, Indus Valley, China, Mesoamerica and Peru
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4 Main Characteristics of States
Agriculture, Centralized Government, Labor Diversification, social stratification
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What is a civilization?
-social system or culture, which is marked by presence of cities, social stratification and state-level organization
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Characteristics of Civilizations
urban, agriculture, specialization, complex economy, stratification, and state authority
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Secondary Traits of Civilization
- •Monumental Architecture
- •Writing or a form of Record-Keeping
- •Mortuary Practices
- •Coerced Tribute/Taxation
- •Mass Production of Goods
- •State Religion
- •State Art
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The Sumerians of Mesopotamia
- -Major ethnic group in early Mesopotamia with its own language & cultural identity
- -Dominant cultural group in the region
- -Had their own form of writing
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Ur
- -City-state; controlled Sumerian empire during 3rd Dynasty of Ur
- -King Ur-Nammu distributed his code of law; evidence of political power
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Ur, Main Characteristics
- -Agriculture: irrigation
- -Government: Code of Ur- Nammu and government controlled labor
- -Labor diversification: craft specialization from items and goods
- -Social stratification: Graves
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Ur: Secondary Traits
- •Dense population
- •writing system, Cuneiform
- •Monumental architecture in Ziggurat
- •Form of state art
- •Ziggurat, example of religious ideology
- •Mortuary practices
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Norte Chico and Caral
-Norte Chico refers to entire civilization, Caral is main urban center
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Caral
- •food subsistence from marine resources & some cultivated plants & collected wild plants
- •Appearance of Andean Staff God
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Caral: Evidence for Complexity
- -Agriculture: cultivated crops, irrigation systems
- -Government: Monumental structures
- -Labor Diversification: Decorated flutes and netted bags
- -Social Stratification: Residential housing
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Secondary Traits of Caral (Characteristics)
- •Monumental Architecture (amphitheater)
- •State Art (decorated bird bone flutes)
- •Record-Keeping (Quipu)
- •Coerced Tribute (System of mit'a)
- •State Religion (Imagery of Staff God)
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Maritime Hypothesis
-Andean civilizations originated bc people were able to live off of rich marine resources year round, leading to sedentary lifestyles and settlements
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Ur fell due to....
weak government, inner turmoil, environmental changes and warfare
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Caral fell due to...
environmental changes but there is a high likelihood of other factors contributing
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Sumeria and Ur (what passed on)
- -One of first forms of writing (Cuneiform)
- -Technology or advanced forms of metalwork
- -Codes of law
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Norte Chico and Caral (what passed on)
- -Record-keeping system of Quipu
- -Coerced tribute system
- -Religious ideology
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What is a city?
type of social organization that organizes individuals into urban center
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What are the characteristics in a city?
- -Large permanent settlements
- -Multifunctional government
- -Dense population
- -political, religious, & administrative centers
- -Agriculture and surplus
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Use of Evidence to understand the Past
- -Architecture
- -Settlement patterns
- -Mortuary Practices
- -Writing
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Rise of States (theories)
- -Irrigation and Agriculture
- -Trade and technology
- -Population and Circumscription
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Theory: Irrigation Agriculture
- -early civilizations appeared in regions where large-scale irrigation agriculture was practiced
- -"hydraulic societies": result of construction of elaborate irrigation systems
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Theory: Circumscription, Population & Warfare
- -Circumscription: resource concentration by either natural features or social features
- -early states arise in regions where key resources are restricted in their distribution
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Theory: Trade and technology
-States emerged at strategic locations in regional trade networks
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Agriculture
Cultivation of domesticated animals, plants, and fungi for food, fiber, and other products
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Neolithic
Prehistoric period beginning about 10,000 years ago in which peoples possessed stone-based technologies and depended on domesticated crops and/or animals
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Sedentary Communities
Year round habitation in permanent settlements (size of community not a variable in definition)
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Neolithic Revolution
- -neolithic = "new stone age"
- -transition from hunting and gathering communities, to agricultural subsistence and settlement
- -name from polished stone tools
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Domestication
humans modify the genetic makeup of plants or animals
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Archaeological Evidence
- -Distinct animal and plant morphology
- -Animals outside natural range
- -Changes in demographic profiles
- -Surplus storage
- -New ground stone tools for harvesting
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tool kit (examples)
sickle, forks,hoes, and plows to replace digging sticks
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Neolithic Transition: Ancient Near East
- -"Cradle of Civilization"
- -earliest plant domestication took place gradually in Fertile Crescent, just east of Mediterranean Sea
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Natufian Culture: Ancient Near East
-Mesolithic culture living in what are now Israel, Lebanon, and western Syria
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Natufian Culture: Ancient Near East (CHARACTERISTICS)
- -sedentary
- -Hunter & gatherer subsistence strategies
- -intense exploitation of wild plants & cereals
- -animal domestication (dog)
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Neolithic transitional culture : 8500-5500 BCE
- -Intensive agriculture
- -large, sedentary communities
- -No pottery production
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Phases: PPNA, PPNB, PPNC
- -transition from H&G to intensive agriculture
- -10kya-9 kya: cereal & plant gathering
- -9kya -8kya: sheep & goat husbandry; still hunting, cereal agriculture
- -8kya-7kya: larger settlements; almost exclusively agriculture; introduced cattle & pigs
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Jericho (pre-pottery neolithic)
- -West Bank in Jordan River Valley
- -one of oldest cities in the world
- -rectangular houses with burials of plastered human skulls
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What is Archaeology?
- A cultural anthropology of the human past
- -study of past human behavior
- -Focus on material remains of human past
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Archaeological Record
All material objects constructed by humans or early hominids that are revealed by archaeology
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Artifacts
objects that have been shaped or altered by human activity
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Features (archaeology)
- non-portable remnants of past human activity
- (ex. House walls, ditches, fire pits. etc.)
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Ethnoarchaeology
study of way present-day societies use artifacts and structures, and how these objects become part of archaeological record
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Experimental Archaeology
- -Also called “reconstruction archaeology”
- -employs number of different methods in order to test hypotheses, based upon archaeological source material
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Survey
the search for archaeological sites in a region
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Before a site is excavated, it is...
mapped and surface data is collected so archaeologists can make informed decisions about where to dig
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Remote sensing
- (survey technique) use of aerial photos and satellite images to locate sites
- -Examples: Images from NASA satellite used to locate buried footpaths
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Most common local approach is to
excavate, or dig, through layers in a site
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Excavation
digging through layers of deposits that make up archaeological or fossil site
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A grid is drawn to...
represent and subdivide the site
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Social and Political Organization
Bands, Tribes, Chiefdoms and States
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Band
- -among foragers
- -Small, division of labor by age & sex
- -roughly equal access to all resources
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Tribe
- -larger than band, members farm or herd
- -Relatively egalitarian
- -May have a leader representing group or organizes group activities
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Sodalities
special-purpose groups that may be organized within tribe for specific purposes or tasks, may organize people by age, sex, ritual roles, etc
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Chiefdom
- -chief & close relatives enjoy privileged access to resources & preside over system of exchange
- -larger than tribe
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State
- -territory defended from outside enemies with army
- -centralized government
- -marked differences in wealth and access to resources
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Is the sequence from Band to State either evolution or progress?
there are differing perspectives
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