Anatomy:Nervous System

nervous system and the endocrine system

the study of the normal functioning and disorders of the nervous system

• central nervous system
• peripheral nervous system

• central nervous system
• consists of the brain and spinal cord

• peripheral nervous system
• cranial nerves that emerge from the brain, and spinal nerves that emerge from the spinal cord

• brain
• cranial nerves and their branches
• spinal cord
• spinal nerves and their branches
• ganglia
• enteric plexus
• sensory receptors

mass or small mass of nervous tissue located outside the brain and spinal cord

12

a bundle of axons located outside of the brain and the spinal cord

network of neurons located in our digestive tract (direct digestive activity)

sensory receptors and sensory neurons of the SNS and ANS and ENS

motor neurons of the SNS (voluntary) ANS(involuntary) and ENS (involuntary)

• part of the PNS
• somatic nervous system
• everything has sensory and motor neurons
• somatic and special sensory receptors and neurons send a signal from the skin, skeletal muscles and joints and special senses (hearing taste vision and smell) to the CNS, the CNS sends a signal to the somatic motor neurons which causes the voluntary movement of skeletal muscles

• part of the PNS
• autonomic nervous system
• autonomic sensory receptors and autonomic sensory (visceral) neurons revieve information from visceral organs send a signal to the CNS
• the cns sends a signal to the autonomic motor neurons (involuntary) sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions which cause smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands

• part of the PNS
• brain of the gut, consist of over 100 million neurons in GI tract
• enteric nervous system
• enteric sensory receptors and enteric sensory neurons of enteric plexuses of GI tract send a signal to the CNS which then sends a signal to the enteric motor neurons (involuntary) in enteric plexuses of GI tract that causes a response in smooth muscle, glands, and endocrine cells of the GI tract

sensory receptors sense a change in environment and the sensory information is sent by the sensory neurons to the integrating part of the brain

interneurons receive information from the sensory function and analyze the information

efferent neurons will respond to the integration and will initiate some kind of action to the effectors

• two branches
• sympathetic and parasympathetic

• increases heart rate
• flight or fight

• slow down heart rate
• rest and digest

examination of tissue

• vascular tissue comprised of two types of cells
• neurons and neuroglia

• highly differentiated cells that have lost the ability to undergo mitotic division
• also called nerve cells
• possess electrical excitability
• impulses travels rapidly at a constant strength along them
• nerve impulses travel these great distances at speeds ranging from 0.5 to 130 meters per second
• motor neurons allow for muscle contraction and sensory neurons let you feel things

smaller cells but outnumber neurons and continually divide

• cell body
• nissl bodies
• lipofuscin
• dendrites
• axon
• axon hillock
• initial segment
• cytoplasm

responsible for protein synthesis

pigment that causes the cell body to have clumps of brown granules in the cytoplasm

receive or input portion of the neuron

neuron that carries the impulse towards another neuron

very first area where the information is signaled, where you leave the cell body and go into an axon

information hits axon hillock before it hits the initial segment

• trigger zone
• axoplasm
• axolemma
• axon terminals (telodendria)

collateral branches at the end of an axon

contain neurotransmitters and located at the end of an axon terminal

cytoplasm of axon

cell membrane of an axon

• where the impulse arises from
• the axon hillock and the initial segment

• lipid and protein covering that protects axons 
• helps to transmit the impulse at a higher rate of speed
• helps progress the impulse across the axon 
• protects the axon 
• plays a role in regeneration of the axon

• MS
• build up of myelin sheath that causes plaque and prohibits the signaling of the message down the axon
• some patients can walk with a slight limp while others may have to be in wheel chair

where one axon starts and another ends

the site of communication between two neurons

nerve cell carries the impulse toward the synapse

carries the impulse away from the synapse and is also called the effector

• NMJ
• synapse between the muscle and a neuron

• carried by the synaptic vesicles that allow communication at a synapse
• ex: acetylcholine, dopamine, glutamate, aspartate, GABA, glycine, norepinephrine, serotonin, endorphins, nitric oxide etc

dopamine

• size and shape
• range in diameter from 5 micrometers to 135 micometers
• pattern of dendritic branching is varied
• some neurons lack axons and many others have short ones

• multipolar
• bipolar
• unipolar

• goes from stimulus to the time it reaches the resting membrane poteintial (-70mV)
• at resting the sodium channels are resting and the voltage gated potassium channels are closed with some potassium channels open, when stimulus occurs the sodium channels open causing depolarization. the depolarizing phase reaches the threshold, during repolarization the voltage gated postassium channels are open and the sodium channels are inactivated. during hyperpolarization the voltage gated potassium channels are closing leaving the regualr potassium channels open and the sodium channels closed

• several dendrites and one axon
• most common

one main dentrite and 1 axon (eye retina, inner ear, olfactory bulb)

• sensory neuron
• one process extending from the cell body

• also called glia
• smaller than neurons
• do not generate or propogate nerve impulses
• have the ability to multiply and divide in the mature nervous system

• glia cells and brain tumors
• many neuroglia are found in brain tumors

• astrocytes
• oligodendrocytes
• microglia
• ependymal
• schwann cells
• satellite cells

• astrocytes
• oligodendrocytes
• microglia
• ependymal cells

• schwann cells
• satellite cells

• shaped like stars
• processes make contract with blood capillaries, neurons, and the pia mater of the brain

• protoplasmic astrocytes found in gray matter
• fibrous astrocytes found mainly in white matter

• provide strength
• maintain the unique permeability characteristics of the endothelial cells
• in the embry astrocytes secrete chemicals that appear to regulate growth, migration, and interconnections among neurons in the brain
• maintain the appropriate chemical environment for the generation of nerve impulses
• play a role in learning and memory by influencing the formation of neural synapses

• have processes that are responsible for forming the myelin sheath,
• most common type

• function as phagocytes and they remove cellular debris, microbes and damaged nervous tissue
• originates in the red bone marrow and migrates to the CNS as the CNS develops
• derived from pluripotent stem cells that give rise to macrophages and monocytes
• found near blood vessels

• line the ventricels of the brain and central canal of the spinal cord
• functionally ependymal cells produce, possibly monitor and assist in the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid
• they also form the blood--cerebrospinal fluid barrier

• aka neurolemmocytes
• encircle the PNS axons
• form the myelin sheath around the axons and participate in axon regineration which is more easily accomplished in the PNS (regeneration after surgery)

• surround the cell bodies of neurons of the PNS ganglia
• regulate the exchange of materials between neuronal cell bodies and interstitial fluid

• axons that are surrounded by a multilayered lipid and protein covering, called the myelin sheath are myelinated
• axons without such covering are unmyelinated
• two types of cells produce myelin sheaths: schwann cells and oligodendrocytes
• sends propagation of signal quicker

collection of myelinated and unmyelinated axons

contains neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, axon terminals and neuroglia

white matter is on the interior surrounded by the gray matter

the white marrow surrounds the gray matter

CNS contains billions of neurons organized into complex networks called neural circuits and having its own function

• simple series circuit
• diverging circuit
• converging circuit
• reverberating circuit
• parallel after-discharge circuit

one single cell stimulating a bunch of other cells

doing curls with your biceps

one cell is stimulated by many others


vomit--> see it hear it and smell it may cause you to vomit

impulse from later cells that are stimulated by one cell that eventually cause an output

ex: breathing

a single cell that stimulates a group of cells taht stimulates a common postsynaptic cell

people who are good at physics

• many neurons have limited power of regeneration
• power to replicate and repair themselves

• ability to change based on experience
• learn how to acclimate

• formation of new neurons from stem cells
• has been found only in the hippocampus

• depression
• bipolar disease
• multiple sclerosis

• neural circuits that control some of your quickest reactions to environmental changes
• site for integration of neuronal stimulation
• relays sensory nerve impulses
• spinal cord is continuous with the brain and together they constitute the central nervous system

• dura mater
• arachnoid mater
• pia mater

there is also a cushion of fat located in the epidural space (where an epidural is put in)

• dense irregular connective tissue
• most outer layer of menegies

• middle layer
• spider web arrangement of delicate collagen fibers with some elastic fibers
• avascular

contains the interstitial fluid

• intermost layer
• very thin and transparent and adheres to the brain and spinal cord (thin transparent film)

help to hold the arachnoid to the spinal cord (thickenings of the pia mater that fuse to arachnoid mater)

shock abosorber and allows the brain and spinal cord to lie in suspension

• length is around 42-45 cm
• diameter is about 2cm in the midthoracic region
• in an adult the spinal cord ends around L2
• growth occurs until the age of 5

from C4 to T1

inferior to the lumbar enlargement

runs from t9-t12

very end of spinal cord

looks like a horse tail

• anterior median fissure
• posterior median sulcus
• gray commissure
• central canal
• anterior white commissure
• horns
• gray matter makes a H shape

wide groove on the anterior side

smaller than anterior median fissure and found on the posterior side

found in the gray matter

in the center or gray matter that goes the entire length of the spinal cord and contains the spinal fluid

• found in the gray matter
• Anterior
• Posterior
• Lateral

cell bodies, axons, and innerneurons of incomming sensory neurons

only found in the thoracic upper lumbar and sacral sinatus of spinal cord contain autonomic motor nuclei that will regulate cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and the glands

bundle of nerve fibers

contain somatic motor nuclei which are clusters of cell bodies of somatic motor neurons that provide nerve impulses for contraction of skeletal muscles

• white matter, contain axons for ascending and descending tracts
• anterior
• posterior
• lateral
• contains distinct bundles of axons having a common origin or destination and carrying similar information

bundles of axons having a common origin that extend long distances up or down the spinal cord

• sensory tracts
• consists of axons that send nerve impusles towards the brain

• motor tracts
• consist of axons that carry nerve impulses away from the brain down the spinal cord

• 8 pairs of cervical nerves
• 12 pairs of thoracic nerves
• 5 pairs of lumbar
• 5 pairs of sacral
• 1 pair of coccygeal
• part of the PNS
• connect the CNS to the sensory receptors, muscles, and glands in all parts of the body
• spinal nerves go must go through a plexus before they go into what they innervate except the thoracic spinal nerves
• throacic spinal nerves do not need a plexus

• paralysis of all four limbs
• usually caused by damage of T4 and up

• paralysis of both lower limbs
• damage of t8- t9 or below

• may effect the phrenic nerve
• will causes problems breathing if damage to c1-c3

• an immediate response to spinal cord injury characterized by temporary loss of reflex function
• if you stay immovable it may go away in a few days

• the axon and its associated glial cells form the nerve fiber
• endoneurium
• perineurium
• fasciculi
• epineurium

covers one of the axons

covers the fascile

plural for all the fascicles

covers the hole spinal nerve

• dorsal and ventral rootlets lead into the anterior and posterior roots
• spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord as a series of rootlets

• emerge in two or three irregular rows
• contain axons of multipolar motor neurons arising from cell bodies in the anterior region of the spinal cord gray matter
• transmit action potentials to the muscles and glands of the body

• project from posterolateral sulcus of the spinal cord
• contain the central porcesses of the sensory unipolar neurons
• neurons transmit action potentials from peripheral receptor organs to the CNS

• a swelling on each posterior root
• contain the cell bodies of sensory neurions

• a mixed nerve
• sensory posterior root and motor anterior root project laterally from the spinal cord they converge to form a mixed nerve
• runs for a short distance before branching into two large branches called ramus

somatic branches from the spinal nerve trunk that run in the musculoskeletal wall of the body

serves the deep muscles of the skin of the posterior surface of the trunk

serves the muscles and structures of the upper and lower limbs and the muscles of the skin of the lateral and anterior regions of the trunk

reenters the vertebral cavity through the intervertebra foramen and supplies the vertebrae, vertebral ligaments, blood vessels of the spinal corde and the meninges

lead to the sympathetic chain of the ANS

• axons from the another rami of spinal nerves except for thoracic nerves (T2-T12)
• principal plexuses are the cervical plexus, brachial plexus, lumbar plexus, and sacral plexus
• a smaller coccygeal plexus is also present
• groups of nerves emerge from the plexuses

• aka waiters tip
• injury to C5-C6 which causes the hand to flex and makes it extremely hard to extend the wrist

• hand stays limp and cannot be pulled into anatomical position
• damage to radial nerve

causes an inability to flex or pronate your hand

• ulnar nerve injury
• inability to abduct or adduct your fingers

• injury to the long thoracic nerve
• scapula rotate when pressure is against them

probably respiratory faileure and quadrapalegic

supplies the skin and muscles of the head, neck, superior portion of the shoulders and chest, diaphragm

supplies the shoulder and upper arm

• roots become superior middle and inferrior trunks
• the trunks divided into anterior and posterior divisions

innervates the elbow extensors

• innervates the wrist flexors
• involved in carpal tunnel syndrome

 innervates the elbow flexor

innervates the deltoid and teres minor muscles

supplies the external genitalia, median thigh and the abdominal wall

• could cause paralissis of the abductors of the thigh if damaged
• also could cause a loss of sensation over the medial aspect of the thigh
• could occur

needs to work if engaging in sex

if damaged it will cause loss of function of anterior leg and dorsal of the foot

• deep and superficial
• also called theperoneal nerve
• if injured you will get foot drop, foot drags

innervates the gluts

• most problematic
• runs all the way down to the heel
• ex: sciatica

• debilitating neurological problem due to the collapse of the S1-S5 causing nerves to sit on top of each other
• very painful

• shows what could be injured by the pain a person is feeling
• each spinal nerve contains sensory neurons that serve a specific, predictable segment of the body
• are the areas of skin that provides sensory input to the CNS via one pair of spinal nerves
• nerve supply in adjacent dermatomes overlaps somewhat
• knowing which spinal cord segment supply each dermatome makes it possible to locate damaged regions of the spinal cord

• found in columns
• sensory tracts will be ascending and motor tracts will be descending
• named based on positin and direction of their signal

responsible for pain, temperature, deep pressure and crude touch

children who do not feel pain get it from this

• balance (proprioception)
• discrimanitive touch
• two point discrimination (used to determine nerve damage)
• pressure and vibration

• spinal thalamic tract
• posterior columns

lateral and anterior corticospinal tract

• rubrospinal tract
• tectospinal tract
• lateral and medial reticulospinal tract

• corticospinal
• corticobulbar
• rubrospinal
• reticulospinal
• vestibulospinal

precise and voluntary movements

precise and voluntary movements

programming of autosmatic movements and posture and muscle tone, equilibrium, and coordination of visual effect

programming of autosmatic movements and posture and muscle tone, equilibrium, and coordination of visual effects

programmng of autosmatic movements and posture and muscle tone, equilibrium, and coordination of visual effects

extremem dizziness that could lead to thrwoing up

homeostasis and also helps maintaing if by serving as an integrating center for our reflexes

• involuntary unexplained sequence of events that occur as a response
• some are inborn and others are aquired

integration in the gray matter of the spinal cord

integration in the brain stem

contraction of skeletal muscle

contraction of smooth muscle, visceral reflex, not conciously perceived

• when you hit the knee and it jerks upward
• starts with sensory receptor that responds to stimulus, receptor begins an impulse, sensory neuron is alerted that something is going on, the sensory neuron takes the impulse to the gray matter of the spinal cord where it is being integrated, the motor neuron is activated and propagates that message into the muscle or effector

• sensory receptor
• sensory neuron
• integrating signal
• motor neuron
• effector

3 lbs

100 billion neurons and 100 synapses

• folds in our brain
• occur because the brain is developing faster than the cranium during childhood

• brain stem
• cerebellum
• diencephalon
• cerebrum

made of the mid brain the pons and the medulla oblongata

posterior to the brain stem

• superior to the brain stem
• surrounded b the cerebral hemispheres
• conncects the brain stem to the cerebrum
• made of the thalamus, the hypothalamus and the epithalamus

• cranium--> compact and spongy bone
• cranial meninges
• cerebrospinal fluid
• blood brain barrier

• dura mater
• arachnoid mater
• pia mater

• has two layers that are fused together except when they reach the venus sinuses
• meningeal layer
• periosteal layer

• falx cerebri
• falx cerebelli
• tentorium cerebelli

seperates two hemispheres of cerebrum

seperates the two hemispheres of the cerebellum

seperates the cerebrum from the cerebellum

• middle meninx
• avascular
• has a spiders web arrangement of delicate collagen fibers and some elastic fibers

• innermost meninx
• thin transparent connective tissue layer that adheres to the surface of the spinl cord and brain
• made of thin squamous to cuboidal cells within interlacing bundles of collagen fibers and some fine elastic fibers
• vascular

• contributes to homeostasis
• protects the brain form damage
• shock absorber
• colorless liquid
• protects against chemical and physical injuries to our brain
• contains oxygen and glucose and other chemicals needed to help promote the use of neurons and neuroglia
• formed in the ventricles

Lateral ventricle-- interventricular foramina-- third ventricle-- cerebral aqueduct-- fourth ventricle-- through lateral and median apertures-- subarachnoid space-- arachnoid vili of dural venous sinuses (reabsorb CSF)-- venous blood-- heart and lungs

• two ventricles on each side
• lateral
• third
• fourth

shock absorber

optimizes the response in the neurons in the brain and the spinal cord

• caused by tumors, blockage, or trauma
• taken care of by running a shunt down from the ventricles to the shoulder
• blockage will be in the ventricles

• does not allow antibodies to cross
• allows oxygen and glucose into the brain
• protects from harmful substances and pathogens
• proteins and antibiotics can not cross BBB
• oxygen, carbon dioxide, anesthetic drugs and alcohol can cross BBB
• consist of tight junctions that make the epithelial tissue tightin substances
• astrocytes will allow for permeability for certa

• blood vessel in the brain ruptures
• catastrophic or minor depending on the blood vessel
• also caused by clogged arteries full of plaque such as the coronary arteries

• TIA
• brain is blocked by a blood clot
• could be fro lungs or from the leg

• medulla oblongata
• pons
• midbrain

• contain the 5 nuclei of the first 5 cranial nerves (12-8)
• continuation of the spinal cord
• begins at the foramin magnum and extends to the inferior border of the pons
• contains ascending and descending tracts

is the cardiovascular center (determines the force and rate of the heart beat and the diameter of our blood vessels) and the respiratory center (allows for te rhythm of our breathing) and the vasomotor function (controls coughing, sneezing, and swallowing)

• neurons that send impulses to the cerebellum and to interpret our proprioceptic signals
• (gives percision to our movements)
• consists of the gracile nucleus, cuneate nucleus, and the medial lemniscus

serves for participation of fine touch of our upper body and proprioception of the upper body

fine touch and proprioception of the upper body

• aka: Reils Ribbon
• carries information from the gracile and cuneate nuclei to the thalamus

• Hypoglossal
• Accessory
• Vagus
• Glossopharyngeal
• Vestibulocochlear

• CN XII
• controls tongue muscles during speech
• mixed nerve: motor and sensory

• CN XI
• use to be called the spinal accessory
• two portions
• cranial portion: arises in medulla itself and controls the skeletal muscles in the pallette
• cervical portion: arises from the cervical part of the spinal cord and innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius

• CN X
• controls cardiac muscle and smooth muscle and the secretions of the digestive tract

• CN IX
• control tste buds on posterior 1/3 of the tongue and controls a muscle that lifts our throat during swallowing

• CN VIII
• cochlear branch: in the cochlei of the ear, responsible for hearing
• vestibular branch: controls receptors in vestibular apparatus giving us a sense of balance (gives us vertigo)

compromise of the vestibular branch of the nerve giving lack of coordination

• only about 2.5 cm
• has a ventral and dorsal portion
• also has ascending and descending tracts

• pontine nuclei
• pneumotaxic area
• apneustic area
• 3 nuceli of cranial nerves

• facial
• abducens
• trigeminal

• CN VII
• controls facial muscles and salivary and nasal glands and the tear ducts (lacrimal grooves) controlled by the motor portion
• sensory portion controls the other 2/3 of the tonges taste buds

• CN VI
• goes to the lateral rectus muscle of the eye

• CN V
• three parts to it
• motor portion: allows us to chew
• sensory portion: thalmic (eye), axillary, and mandibular

• on the ventral portion of the pons
• important in learning motor skills

• causes the transition between inhaling and exhailing
• can override the apneustic area

• triggers the end of breathing and triggers the end of a breath
• can be overridden by the pneumotaxic area

• tectum
• superior colliculi
• inferior colliculi
• substantia nigra
• red nucleli
• 2 nuclei of cranial nerves
• cerebral aqueduct
• cerebral peduncle

• has to do with CSF flow
• connects the third ventricle with the fourth

conducts nerve impulses from the cerebrum to the spinal cord, the medulla, and to the pons

posterior part of the midbrain

• have 2
• coordinates the eye movements with visual stimuli

head movements according to auditory sound (move head toward sound)

• secretes dopamine
• effects parkinsons disease (no cure)

• has axons from the cerebellum and cerebral cortex
• they form a synapse that coordinates our muscular movements
• very rich in blood supply and high iron content

• CN IV
• goes to the superior bleak eye muscle

• CN III
• goes to 6 different muscles in the eye
• 4 extrinsic eye muscles
• 2 intrinsic eye muscle
• nerve that is effected when someone has cataracks
• changes the shape of the lense of our eye

• CN II
• nuclei is outside the brain stem
• has to do with vision and reaction from what you see
• you reaction to what you see depends on how it is interpreted by the thalamus

X shape of the optic nerve

part of the optic tracts located in the nucleus of the thalamus

• CN I
• give us our sense of smell
• arises in the cribiform plate
• smell is the strongest sense that we have
• this nerve bypasses the thalamus making it the strongest sense
• no interpretation by the thalamus

sits on the cribiform plate

• why we wake up to alarms, why we run from loud noises
• reticular activating system is anothe rname
• neurons within this area have both ascending and descending tracts
• helps maintain consciousness and makes us active while we are awake from sleep
• also plays a role in muscle tone

part of transverse fissure and supports the posterior part of the cerebrum and seperates the cerebrum and the cerebellum

constricted area that seperates the lobes or hemispheres of the cerebellum

• each hemisphere contains an anterior and posterior lobe which governs some of the subconscious aspects of muscular movement
• makes it possible for skilled movements (walking- catching balls)

contributes to the equilibrium and our balance

contain folia and arbor vitae and cerebellar nuclei

parallel lobes of gray matter in the cerebellar cortex

white matter located in the cerebellar cortex

regions of gray matter that give rise to axons carrying impulses from the cerebellum to other brain centers and to the spinal cord

• bundles of white matter that conduct impulses from the cerebellum to other parts of the brain
• inferior (ICP)
• middle (MCP)
• superior (SCP)

• plays a major role in rage and aggression and errousa and fear
• major relay system for every sense except the olfactory sense
• if damaged it is possible to go into a coma
• contains seven groups of nuclei (anterior, medial, lateral)

connects the hypothalamus with the limbic system

connects cerebral cortex, the limbic sysetem, and the basal ganglia

connects the superior caliculi, the limbic system, and the cortex to all the lobes of the cerebrum

• plays a major role in homeostasis
• place of control for the ANS
• regulation of eating and drinking
• also plays a role in the regulation of emotions and behaveral patterns (pain, aggression, anger)
• regulates the circadian rhythm (sleep)
• contains cell bodies that lead to the pituitary gland (secretes hormones)

• serve as relay sttions for reflexes to the sense of smell
• functions in memory

• a small region superior and posterior to the thalamus
• consists of the pineal gland and habenular nuclei
• involved in olfaction, especially emotional responses to odors

part of the epithalamus that is surrounded by the ventricles of the brain and has a incomplete blood brain barrier1

• secretes melatonin
• hormone of darkness

• aka: seat of intelegence
• has two hemispheres (right and left) that are held by the falx cerebri
• each hemisphere contains an outer layer of gray mater with a inner layer of white matter and deep gray nuclei in the white mater

seperates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe

• anterior to the central sulcus
• contains the primary motor area

• primary somatosensory area
• posterior to the central sulcus

deep grooves inside the gyri

shallow grooves inside the gyri

seperates the frontal lobe from the temporal lobe

seperates the parietala lobe from the occipital lobe

largest amount of aggrigated white matter found in the brain

• frontal
• parietal
• temporal
• occipital

• consist mainly of mylenated axons
• association tracts
• commissural tracts
• projection tracts

connects nerve impulses between gyri in the same hemisphere

connects nerve impulses from the gyri in one cerebral hemisphere to the gyri in the other cerebral hemisphere

conduct nereve impulses from the cerebrum to the lower parts of the CNS including the brain stem and the spinal cord

• deep within each hemisphere there are three masses of gray matter
• globus pallidus
• putamen
• caudate nucleus

• affects the basial ganglia first
• early onset: before 60
• late onset: after 60
• liberation of acetylcholine
• beta amyloid plaques
• nuerofibrillary tangles

made up of the globus pallidus and the putamen

• made from the caudate nucleus and the lentiform nucleus
• has striations that appear on it
• largest of the basal ganglia nuclei
• works closely with the cerebellum to control of muscles

abnormal clusters of dead or dying nerve cells found with alzheimers disease

twisted fragments of proteins that clog the nerve cells and prevent them from sending impulses

• emotional lobe
• plays a primary role in different ranges of emotions
• involved in the olfaction
• experiments done with animals show that the limbic system when stimulated will give extreme pleasure or pain

• part of limbic system
• regulates blood pressure and heart rate that goes along with emotional processing

plays role in formation of spacial memory (knowing where things are in your home)

important role in the consolidation of information that leads from short term to long term memory (first region suffers damage from alzheimers)

contributes to new memory

plays primary role in formation and storage of memory associated with our emotions

carries signals from the hippocampus to the mammillary bodies

• septal nuclei
• mammillary bodies
• anterior and medial nuclei
• olfactory bulbs
• fornix
• stria terminalis
• stria medullaris
• medial forebrain bundle
• mammillothalamic

• temporary loss of consciousness
• headache, drousy, lack of concentration

• bruising of the brain
• unconsciousness for less than a minute
• blood ciculates in the CSF

• tearing of the brain
• cause by fracture or a bullet

causes uncontrollable tremors

• genetic
• sometimes there are behavioral disorders
• iratable
• parahoyia

• form of disfunction in the cortical and subcorticle region of the thalamus and basal ganglia and the frontal cortex
• twitches and the use of bad language

• effects men and women equally
• makes it difficult for people to tell the difference between what is real and not real

• primary somatosensory
• primary visual
• primary gustatory
• primary olfactory

• controls sensory
• receives nerve impulses for touch, pain and temperature

• primary motor area
• broca's speech area

controls voluntary contraction of muscle groups

gives us the ability to understand spoken words

• prefrontal cortex
• visual association
• auditory association
• common integrative area
• wernicke's area
• premotor area
• frontal eye field area

gives us ability to be bilingual

looking and understanding what your are looking at

• cerebral palsey
• debilitating of movment
• non progressive

imparement in ability to speak

disturbs certain brain activity and causes seizures

irritation and swelling of the brain due to an infection

attention deficet disorder with hyperactivity

• 4-12 yrs old
• detrimentral effect on most organs

• right and left side of the brains are typically symmetrical with a few anatomical differences
• women have more crossover than men

• more musical and artistic
• recognize faces and emotional content of faces

• spoken and written language
• numerical and scientific skills
• ability to use and understand sign language
• reasoning

• generated by neurons and found by EEG
• electro ecephtogram
• helps dianose things

awake and resting waves

mental activity

deep sleep

emotional stress