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what two systems are the bodys major control and integrating centers
nervous system and the endocrine system
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neruology
the study of the normal functioning and disorders of the nervous system
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two major divisions of the nervous system
- central nervous system
- peripheral nervous system
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CNS
- central nervous system
- consists of the brain and spinal cord
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PNS
- peripheral nervous system
- cranial nerves that emerge from the brain, and spinal nerves that emerge from the spinal cord
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parts of the nervous system
- brain
- cranial nerves and their branches
- spinal cord
- spinal nerves and their branches
- ganglia
- enteric plexus
- sensory receptors
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ganglia
mass or small mass of nervous tissue located outside the brain and spinal cord
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how many cranial nerves are there
12
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nerve
a bundle of axons located outside of the brain and the spinal cord
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enteric plexus
network of neurons located in our digestive tract (direct digestive activity)
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sensory components of the SNS
sensory receptors and sensory neurons of the SNS and ANS and ENS
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motor components of the PNS
motor neurons of the SNS (voluntary) ANS(involuntary) and ENS (involuntary)
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SNS
- part of the PNS
- somatic nervous system
- everything has sensory and motor neurons
- somatic and special sensory receptors and neurons send a signal from the skin, skeletal muscles and joints and special senses (hearing taste vision and smell) to the CNS, the CNS sends a signal to the somatic motor neurons which causes the voluntary movement of skeletal muscles
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ANS
- part of the PNS
- autonomic nervous system
- autonomic sensory receptors and autonomic sensory (visceral) neurons revieve information from visceral organs send a signal to the CNS
- the cns sends a signal to the autonomic motor neurons (involuntary) sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions which cause smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands
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ENS
- part of the PNS
- brain of the gut, consist of over 100 million neurons in GI tract
- enteric nervous system
- enteric sensory receptors and enteric sensory neurons of enteric plexuses of GI tract send a signal to the CNS which then sends a signal to the enteric motor neurons (involuntary) in enteric plexuses of GI tract that causes a response in smooth muscle, glands, and endocrine cells of the GI tract
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sensory function
sensory receptors sense a change in environment and the sensory information is sent by the sensory neurons to the integrating part of the brain
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integrative function
interneurons receive information from the sensory function and analyze the information
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motor function
efferent neurons will respond to the integration and will initiate some kind of action to the effectors
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motor branches of the ANS
- two branches
- sympathetic and parasympathetic
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sympathetic sytem
- increases heart rate
- flight or fight
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parasympathetic system
- slow down heart rate
- rest and digest
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histology
examination of tissue
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histology of nervous tissue
- vascular tissue comprised of two types of cells
- neurons and neuroglia
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neurons
- highly differentiated cells that have lost the ability to undergo mitotic division
- also called nerve cells
- possess electrical excitability
- impulses travels rapidly at a constant strength along them
- nerve impulses travel these great distances at speeds ranging from 0.5 to 130 meters per second
- motor neurons allow for muscle contraction and sensory neurons let you feel things
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neuroglia
smaller cells but outnumber neurons and continually divide
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parts of the neuron
- cell body
- nissl bodies
- lipofuscin
- dendrites
- axon
- axon hillock
- initial segment
- cytoplasm
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nissl bodies
responsible for protein synthesis
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lipofuscin
pigment that causes the cell body to have clumps of brown granules in the cytoplasm
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dendrites
receive or input portion of the neuron
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axon
neuron that carries the impulse towards another neuron
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initial segment
very first area where the information is signaled, where you leave the cell body and go into an axon
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axon hillock
information hits axon hillock before it hits the initial segment
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parts of an axon
- trigger zone
- axoplasm
- axolemma
- axon terminals (telodendria)
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axon terminal
collateral branches at the end of an axon
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synaptic end buls
contain neurotransmitters and located at the end of an axon terminal
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axoplasm
cytoplasm of axon
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axolema
cell membrane of an axon
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trigger zone
- where the impulse arises from
- the axon hillock and the initial segment
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mylin sheath
- lipid and protein covering that protects axons
- helps to transmit the impulse at a higher rate of speed
- helps progress the impulse across the axon
- protects the axon
- plays a role in regeneration of the axon
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multiple sclerosis
- MS
- build up of myelin sheath that causes plaque and prohibits the signaling of the message down the axon
- some patients can walk with a slight limp while others may have to be in wheel chair
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node of ranier
where one axon starts and another ends
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synapse
the site of communication between two neurons
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presynaptic neuron
nerve cell carries the impulse toward the synapse
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postsynaptic neuron
carries the impulse away from the synapse and is also called the effector
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neuromuscular junction
- NMJ
- synapse between the muscle and a neuron
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neurotransmitter
- carried by the synaptic vesicles that allow communication at a synapse
- ex: acetylcholine, dopamine, glutamate, aspartate, GABA, glycine, norepinephrine, serotonin, endorphins, nitric oxide etc
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which neurotransmitter has to do with parkinson's disease
dopamine
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structural diversity in neurons
- size and shape
- range in diameter from 5 micrometers to 135 micometers
- pattern of dendritic branching is varied
- some neurons lack axons and many others have short ones
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types of neurons
- multipolar
- bipolar
- unipolar
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action potentials
- goes from stimulus to the time it reaches the resting membrane poteintial (-70mV)
- at resting the sodium channels are resting and the voltage gated potassium channels are closed with some potassium channels open, when stimulus occurs the sodium channels open causing depolarization. the depolarizing phase reaches the threshold, during repolarization the voltage gated postassium channels are open and the sodium channels are inactivated. during hyperpolarization the voltage gated potassium channels are closing leaving the regualr potassium channels open and the sodium channels closed
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multipolar neurons
- several dendrites and one axon
- most common
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bi polar
one main dentrite and 1 axon (eye retina, inner ear, olfactory bulb)
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unipolar
- sensory neuron
- one process extending from the cell body
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neuroglia
- also called glia
- smaller than neurons
- do not generate or propogate nerve impulses
- have the ability to multiply and divide in the mature nervous system
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gliablastoma
- glia cells and brain tumors
- many neuroglia are found in brain tumors
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six types of neuroglia
- astrocytes
- oligodendrocytes
- microglia
- ependymal
- schwann cells
- satellite cells
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neuroglia found in CNS
- astrocytes
- oligodendrocytes
- microglia
- ependymal cells
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neuroglia found in PNS
- schwann cells
- satellite cells
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astrocytes
- shaped like stars
- processes make contract with blood capillaries, neurons, and the pia mater of the brain
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types of astrocytes
- protoplasmic astrocytes found in gray matter
- fibrous astrocytes found mainly in white matter
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functions of astrocytes
- provide strength
- maintain the unique permeability characteristics of the endothelial cells
- in the embry astrocytes secrete chemicals that appear to regulate growth, migration, and interconnections among neurons in the brain
- maintain the appropriate chemical environment for the generation of nerve impulses
- play a role in learning and memory by influencing the formation of neural synapses
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oligodendrocytes
- have processes that are responsible for forming the myelin sheath,
- most common type
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microglia
- function as phagocytes and they remove cellular debris, microbes and damaged nervous tissue
- originates in the red bone marrow and migrates to the CNS as the CNS develops
- derived from pluripotent stem cells that give rise to macrophages and monocytes
- found near blood vessels
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ependymal cells
- line the ventricels of the brain and central canal of the spinal cord
- functionally ependymal cells produce, possibly monitor and assist in the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid
- they also form the blood--cerebrospinal fluid barrier
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schwann cells
- aka neurolemmocytes
- encircle the PNS axons
- form the myelin sheath around the axons and participate in axon regineration which is more easily accomplished in the PNS (regeneration after surgery)
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satellite cells
- surround the cell bodies of neurons of the PNS ganglia
- regulate the exchange of materials between neuronal cell bodies and interstitial fluid
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a6z4ju%dtvmyelination
- axons that are surrounded by a multilayered lipid and protein covering, called the myelin sheath are myelinated
- axons without such covering are unmyelinated
- two types of cells produce myelin sheaths: schwann cells and oligodendrocytes
- sends propagation of signal quicker
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white matter
collection of myelinated and unmyelinated axons
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gray matter
contains neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, axon terminals and neuroglia
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gray and white matter in the brain
white matter is on the interior surrounded by the gray matter
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gray and white matter in the spinal cord
the white marrow surrounds the gray matter
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neural circuits
CNS contains billions of neurons organized into complex networks called neural circuits and having its own function
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types of neural circuits
- simple series circuit
- diverging circuit
- converging circuit
- reverberating circuit
- parallel after-discharge circuit
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diverging circuit
one single cell stimulating a bunch of other cells
doing curls with your biceps
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converging circuit
one cell is stimulated by many others
vomit--> see it hear it and smell it may cause you to vomit
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reverberating circuit
impulse from later cells that are stimulated by one cell that eventually cause an output
ex: breathing
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parallel after discharge circuit
a single cell that stimulates a group of cells taht stimulates a common postsynaptic cell
people who are good at physics
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regeneration
- many neurons have limited power of regeneration
- power to replicate and repair themselves
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plasticity
- ability to change based on experience
- learn how to acclimate
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neurogenesis
- formation of new neurons from stem cells
- has been found only in the hippocampus
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clinical disorders of the nervous system
- depression
- bipolar disease
- multiple sclerosis
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what does the spinal cord contain
- neural circuits that control some of your quickest reactions to environmental changes
- site for integration of neuronal stimulation
- relays sensory nerve impulses
- spinal cord is continuous with the brain and together they constitute the central nervous system
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menegies
- dura mater
- arachnoid mater
- pia mater
there is also a cushion of fat located in the epidural space (where an epidural is put in)
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dura mater
- dense irregular connective tissue
- most outer layer of menegies
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arachnoid mater
- middle layer
- spider web arrangement of delicate collagen fibers with some elastic fibers
- avascular
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subdural space
contains the interstitial fluid
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pia mater
- intermost layer
- very thin and transparent and adheres to the brain and spinal cord (thin transparent film)
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denticulate liguiments
help to hold the arachnoid to the spinal cord (thickenings of the pia mater that fuse to arachnoid mater)
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CSF
shock abosorber and allows the brain and spinal cord to lie in suspension
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external anatomy of the spinal cord
- length is around 42-45 cm
- diameter is about 2cm in the midthoracic region
- in an adult the spinal cord ends around L2
- growth occurs until the age of 5
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cervical enlargemtns
from C4 to T1
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conus medullaris
inferior to the lumbar enlargement
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lumbar enlargement
runs from t9-t12
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filum terminale
very end of spinal cord
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cauda equine
looks like a horse tail
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internal anatomy of the spinal cord
- anterior median fissure
- posterior median sulcus
- gray commissure
- central canal
- anterior white commissure
- horns
- gray matter makes a H shape
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anterior median fissure
wide groove on the anterior side
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posterior median sulcus
smaller than anterior median fissure and found on the posterior side
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gray commissure
found in the gray matter
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central canal
in the center or gray matter that goes the entire length of the spinal cord and contains the spinal fluid
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Horns of the spinal cord
- found in the gray matter
- Anterior
- Posterior
- Lateral
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posterior gray horn
cell bodies, axons, and innerneurons of incomming sensory neurons
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later gray horn
only found in the thoracic upper lumbar and sacral sinatus of spinal cord contain autonomic motor nuclei that will regulate cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and the glands
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ganglion
bundle of nerve fibers
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anterior gray horn
contain somatic motor nuclei which are clusters of cell bodies of somatic motor neurons that provide nerve impulses for contraction of skeletal muscles
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columns
- white matter, contain axons for ascending and descending tracts
- anterior
- posterior
- lateral
- contains distinct bundles of axons having a common origin or destination and carrying similar information
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tracts
bundles of axons having a common origin that extend long distances up or down the spinal cord
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ascending tracts
- sensory tracts
- consists of axons that send nerve impusles towards the brain
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descending tracts
- motor tracts
- consist of axons that carry nerve impulses away from the brain down the spinal cord
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spinal nerves
- 8 pairs of cervical nerves
- 12 pairs of thoracic nerves
- 5 pairs of lumbar
- 5 pairs of sacral
- 1 pair of coccygeal
- part of the PNS
- connect the CNS to the sensory receptors, muscles, and glands in all parts of the body
- spinal nerves go must go through a plexus before they go into what they innervate except the thoracic spinal nerves
- throacic spinal nerves do not need a plexus
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quadrapallegic
- paralysis of all four limbs
- usually caused by damage of T4 and up
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paraplegic
- paralysis of both lower limbs
- damage of t8- t9 or below
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damage to cervical nerves
- may effect the phrenic nerve
- will causes problems breathing if damage to c1-c3
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spinal shock
- an immediate response to spinal cord injury characterized by temporary loss of reflex function
- if you stay immovable it may go away in a few days
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structure of a single spinal nerve
- the axon and its associated glial cells form the nerve fiber
- endoneurium
- perineurium
- fasciculi
- epineurium
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endoneurium
covers one of the axons
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perineurium
covers the fascile
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fasciculi
plural for all the fascicles
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epineurium
covers the hole spinal nerve
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rootlets
- dorsal and ventral rootlets lead into the anterior and posterior roots
- spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord as a series of rootlets
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anterior rootlets
- emerge in two or three irregular rows
- contain axons of multipolar motor neurons arising from cell bodies in the anterior region of the spinal cord gray matter
- transmit action potentials to the muscles and glands of the body
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posterior rootlets
- project from posterolateral sulcus of the spinal cord
- contain the central porcesses of the sensory unipolar neurons
- neurons transmit action potentials from peripheral receptor organs to the CNS
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posterior root ganglion
- a swelling on each posterior root
- contain the cell bodies of sensory neurions
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spinal nerve trunk
- a mixed nerve
- sensory posterior root and motor anterior root project laterally from the spinal cord they converge to form a mixed nerve
- runs for a short distance before branching into two large branches called ramus
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ramus
somatic branches from the spinal nerve trunk that run in the musculoskeletal wall of the body
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posterior ramus (dorsal)
serves the deep muscles of the skin of the posterior surface of the trunk
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anterior ramus (ventral)
serves the muscles and structures of the upper and lower limbs and the muscles of the skin of the lateral and anterior regions of the trunk
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meningeal branch
reenters the vertebral cavity through the intervertebra foramen and supplies the vertebrae, vertebral ligaments, blood vessels of the spinal corde and the meninges
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rami communicantes
lead to the sympathetic chain of the ANS
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plexuses
- axons from the another rami of spinal nerves except for thoracic nerves (T2-T12)
- principal plexuses are the cervical plexus, brachial plexus, lumbar plexus, and sacral plexus
- a smaller coccygeal plexus is also present
- groups of nerves emerge from the plexuses
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Erb-Duchenne palsy
- aka waiters tip
- injury to C5-C6 which causes the hand to flex and makes it extremely hard to extend the wrist
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wrist drop
- hand stays limp and cannot be pulled into anatomical position
- damage to radial nerve
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injury to the median nerve
causes an inability to flex or pronate your hand
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clawhand
- ulnar nerve injury
- inability to abduct or adduct your fingers
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winged scapula
- injury to the long thoracic nerve
- scapula rotate when pressure is against them
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damage to C1-C3
probably respiratory faileure and quadrapalegic
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cervical plexus
supplies the skin and muscles of the head, neck, superior portion of the shoulders and chest, diaphragm
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Brachial plexus
supplies the shoulder and upper arm
- roots become superior middle and inferrior trunks
- the trunks divided into anterior and posterior divisions
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radial nerve
innervates the elbow extensors
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median nerve
- innervates the wrist flexors
- involved in carpal tunnel syndrome
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musculocutaneous nerve
innervates the elbow flexor
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axillary nerve
innervates the deltoid and teres minor muscles
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lumbar plexus
supplies the external genitalia, median thigh and the abdominal wall
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obturator
- could cause paralissis of the abductors of the thigh if damaged
- also could cause a loss of sensation over the medial aspect of the thigh
- could occur
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pudendal nerve
needs to work if engaging in sex
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tibila nerve
if damaged it will cause loss of function of anterior leg and dorsal of the foot
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fibular nerve
- deep and superficial
- also called theperoneal nerve
- if injured you will get foot drop, foot drags
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sacral plexus
innervates the gluts
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sciatic nerve
- most problematic
- runs all the way down to the heel
- ex: sciatica
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spinal stinosis
- debilitating neurological problem due to the collapse of the S1-S5 causing nerves to sit on top of each other
- very painful
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dermatomes
- shows what could be injured by the pain a person is feeling
- each spinal nerve contains sensory neurons that serve a specific, predictable segment of the body
- are the areas of skin that provides sensory input to the CNS via one pair of spinal nerves
- nerve supply in adjacent dermatomes overlaps somewhat
- knowing which spinal cord segment supply each dermatome makes it possible to locate damaged regions of the spinal cord
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Sensory and motor tracts
- found in columns
- sensory tracts will be ascending and motor tracts will be descending
- named based on positin and direction of their signal
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spinothalmic tract
responsible for pain, temperature, deep pressure and crude touch
children who do not feel pain get it from this
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posterior columns
- balance (proprioception)
- discrimanitive touch
- two point discrimination (used to determine nerve damage)
- pressure and vibration
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sensory tracts
- spinal thalamic tract
- posterior columns
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direct pathways for tracts
lateral and anterior corticospinal tract
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indirect pathways for tracts
- rubrospinal tract
- tectospinal tract
- lateral and medial reticulospinal tract
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motor tracts
- corticospinal
- corticobulbar
- rubrospinal
- reticulospinal
- vestibulospinal
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corticospinal tracts
precise and voluntary movements
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corticobulbar tracts
precise and voluntary movements
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rubrospinal tracts
programming of autosmatic movements and posture and muscle tone, equilibrium, and coordination of visual effect
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reticulospinal tracts
programming of autosmatic movements and posture and muscle tone, equilibrium, and coordination of visual effects
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vestibulospinal tracts
programmng of autosmatic movements and posture and muscle tone, equilibrium, and coordination of visual effects
-
vertigo
extremem dizziness that could lead to thrwoing up
-
the spinal cord promotes
homeostasis and also helps maintaing if by serving as an integrating center for our reflexes
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reflex
- involuntary unexplained sequence of events that occur as a response
- some are inborn and others are aquired
-
spinal reflex
integration in the gray matter of the spinal cord
-
cranial reflex
integration in the brain stem
-
somatic reflex
contraction of skeletal muscle
-
autonomic reflex
contraction of smooth muscle, visceral reflex, not conciously perceived
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patellar reflex
- when you hit the knee and it jerks upward
- starts with sensory receptor that responds to stimulus, receptor begins an impulse, sensory neuron is alerted that something is going on, the sensory neuron takes the impulse to the gray matter of the spinal cord where it is being integrated, the motor neuron is activated and propagates that message into the muscle or effector
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parts associated with reflexes
- sensory receptor
- sensory neuron
- integrating signal
- motor neuron
- effector
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an average brain weighs
3 lbs
-
how many neurons and synapses are in the brain
100 billion neurons and 100 synapses
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gyri
- folds in our brain
- occur because the brain is developing faster than the cranium during childhood
-
four major parts of the brain
- brain stem
- cerebellum
- diencephalon
- cerebrum
-
brain stem
made of the mid brain the pons and the medulla oblongata
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cerebellum
posterior to the brain stem
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dienchephalon
- superior to the brain stem
- surrounded b the cerebral hemispheres
- conncects the brain stem to the cerebrum
- made of the thalamus, the hypothalamus and the epithalamus
-
protective coverings of the brain
- cranium--> compact and spongy bone
- cranial meninges
- cerebrospinal fluid
- blood brain barrier
-
cranial meninges
- dura mater
- arachnoid mater
- pia mater
-
dura mater
- has two layers that are fused together except when they reach the venus sinuses
- meningeal layer
- periosteal layer
-
three extensions of the dura mater
- falx cerebri
- falx cerebelli
- tentorium cerebelli
-
falx cerebri
seperates two hemispheres of cerebrum
-
falx cerebelli
seperates the two hemispheres of the cerebellum
-
tentorium cerebelli
seperates the cerebrum from the cerebellum
-
arachnoid mater
- middle meninx
- avascular
- has a spiders web arrangement of delicate collagen fibers and some elastic fibers
-
pia mater
- innermost meninx
- thin transparent connective tissue layer that adheres to the surface of the spinl cord and brain
- made of thin squamous to cuboidal cells within interlacing bundles of collagen fibers and some fine elastic fibers
- vascular
-
cerebrospinal fluid
- contributes to homeostasis
- protects the brain form damage
- shock absorber
- colorless liquid
- protects against chemical and physical injuries to our brain
- contains oxygen and glucose and other chemicals needed to help promote the use of neurons and neuroglia
- formed in the ventricles
-
formation and circulation of CSF
Lateral ventricle-- interventricular foramina-- third ventricle-- cerebral aqueduct-- fourth ventricle-- through lateral and median apertures-- subarachnoid space-- arachnoid vili of dural venous sinuses (reabsorb CSF)-- venous blood-- heart and lungs
-
ventricles
- two ventricles on each side
- lateral
- third
- fourth
-
mechanical protection from CSF
shock absorber
-
chemical protection from CSF
optimizes the response in the neurons in the brain and the spinal cord
-
hydrocephalus
- caused by tumors, blockage, or trauma
- taken care of by running a shunt down from the ventricles to the shoulder
- blockage will be in the ventricles
-
Blood brain barrier
- does not allow antibodies to cross
- allows oxygen and glucose into the brain
- protects from harmful substances and pathogens
- proteins and antibiotics can not cross BBB
- oxygen, carbon dioxide, anesthetic drugs and alcohol can cross BBB
- consist of tight junctions that make the epithelial tissue tightin substances
- astrocytes will allow for permeability for certa
-
cerebrovascular accident (CVA)
- blood vessel in the brain ruptures
- catastrophic or minor depending on the blood vessel
- also caused by clogged arteries full of plaque such as the coronary arteries
-
Transient Ischemic Attack
- TIA
- brain is blocked by a blood clot
- could be fro lungs or from the leg
-
parts of the brain stem
- medulla oblongata
- pons
- midbrain
-
medulla oblongata
- contain the 5 nuclei of the first 5 cranial nerves (12-8)
- continuation of the spinal cord
- begins at the foramin magnum and extends to the inferior border of the pons
- contains ascending and descending tracts
-
functions of the medulla oblongata
is the cardiovascular center (determines the force and rate of the heart beat and the diameter of our blood vessels) and the respiratory center (allows for te rhythm of our breathing) and the vasomotor function (controls coughing, sneezing, and swallowing)
-
olive
- neurons that send impulses to the cerebellum and to interpret our proprioceptic signals
- (gives percision to our movements)
- consists of the gracile nucleus, cuneate nucleus, and the medial lemniscus
-
gracile nucleus
serves for participation of fine touch of our upper body and proprioception of the upper body
-
cuneate nucleus
fine touch and proprioception of the upper body
-
medial lemniscus
- aka: Reils Ribbon
- carries information from the gracile and cuneate nuclei to the thalamus
-
cranial nerves of the medulla
- Hypoglossal
- Accessory
- Vagus
- Glossopharyngeal
- Vestibulocochlear
-
Hypoglossal
- CN XII
- controls tongue muscles during speech
- mixed nerve: motor and sensory
-
Accessory
- CN XI
- use to be called the spinal accessory
- two portions
- cranial portion: arises in medulla itself and controls the skeletal muscles in the pallette
- cervical portion: arises from the cervical part of the spinal cord and innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
-
vagus
- CN X
- controls cardiac muscle and smooth muscle and the secretions of the digestive tract
-
glossopharyngeal
- CN IX
- control tste buds on posterior 1/3 of the tongue and controls a muscle that lifts our throat during swallowing
-
vestibulocochlear
- CN VIII
- cochlear branch: in the cochlei of the ear, responsible for hearing
- vestibular branch: controls receptors in vestibular apparatus giving us a sense of balance (gives us vertigo)
-
ataxia
compromise of the vestibular branch of the nerve giving lack of coordination
-
pons
- only about 2.5 cm
- has a ventral and dorsal portion
- also has ascending and descending tracts
-
parts of the pons
- pontine nuclei
- pneumotaxic area
- apneustic area
- 3 nuceli of cranial nerves
-
cranial nerves located in the pons
-
facial nerve
- CN VII
- controls facial muscles and salivary and nasal glands and the tear ducts (lacrimal grooves) controlled by the motor portion
- sensory portion controls the other 2/3 of the tonges taste buds
-
abducens nerve
- CN VI
- goes to the lateral rectus muscle of the eye
-
Trigeminal
- CN V
- three parts to it
- motor portion: allows us to chew
- sensory portion: thalmic (eye), axillary, and mandibular
-
pontine nuclei
- on the ventral portion of the pons
- important in learning motor skills
-
pneumotaxic area
- causes the transition between inhaling and exhailing
- can override the apneustic area
-
apneustic area
- triggers the end of breathing and triggers the end of a breath
- can be overridden by the pneumotaxic area
-
parts of the midbrain
- tectum
- superior colliculi
- inferior colliculi
- substantia nigra
- red nucleli
- 2 nuclei of cranial nerves
- cerebral aqueduct
- cerebral peduncle
-
cerebral aqueduct
- has to do with CSF flow
- connects the third ventricle with the fourth
-
cerebral peduncle
conducts nerve impulses from the cerebrum to the spinal cord, the medulla, and to the pons
-
tectum
posterior part of the midbrain
-
superior colliculi
- have 2
- coordinates the eye movements with visual stimuli
-
inferior colliculi
head movements according to auditory sound (move head toward sound)
-
substantia nigra
- secretes dopamine
- effects parkinsons disease (no cure)
-
red nuclei
- has axons from the cerebellum and cerebral cortex
- they form a synapse that coordinates our muscular movements
- very rich in blood supply and high iron content
-
trochlear nerve
- CN IV
- goes to the superior bleak eye muscle
-
oculomotor nerve
- CN III
- goes to 6 different muscles in the eye
- 4 extrinsic eye muscles
- 2 intrinsic eye muscle
- nerve that is effected when someone has cataracks
- changes the shape of the lense of our eye
-
optic nerve
- CN II
- nuclei is outside the brain stem
- has to do with vision and reaction from what you see
- you reaction to what you see depends on how it is interpreted by the thalamus
-
optic chiasm
X shape of the optic nerve
-
optic tracts
part of the optic tracts located in the nucleus of the thalamus
-
olfactory nerve
- CN I
- give us our sense of smell
- arises in the cribiform plate
- smell is the strongest sense that we have
- this nerve bypasses the thalamus making it the strongest sense
- no interpretation by the thalamus
-
olfactory bulb
sits on the cribiform plate
-
reticular formation
- why we wake up to alarms, why we run from loud noises
- reticular activating system is anothe rname
- neurons within this area have both ascending and descending tracts
- helps maintain consciousness and makes us active while we are awake from sleep
- also plays a role in muscle tone
-
tentorium cerebelli
part of transverse fissure and supports the posterior part of the cerebrum and seperates the cerebrum and the cerebellum
-
vermis
constricted area that seperates the lobes or hemispheres of the cerebellum
-
cerebellar hemispheres
- each hemisphere contains an anterior and posterior lobe which governs some of the subconscious aspects of muscular movement
- makes it possible for skilled movements (walking- catching balls)
-
flocculondular lobe
contributes to the equilibrium and our balance
-
cerebellar cortex
contain folia and arbor vitae and cerebellar nuclei
-
folia
parallel lobes of gray matter in the cerebellar cortex
-
arbor vitae
white matter located in the cerebellar cortex
-
cerebellar nuclei
regions of gray matter that give rise to axons carrying impulses from the cerebellum to other brain centers and to the spinal cord
-
cerebellar peduncles
- bundles of white matter that conduct impulses from the cerebellum to other parts of the brain
- inferior (ICP)
- middle (MCP)
- superior (SCP)
-
Thalamus
- plays a major role in rage and aggression and errousa and fear
- major relay system for every sense except the olfactory sense
- if damaged it is possible to go into a coma
- contains seven groups of nuclei (anterior, medial, lateral)
-
anterior nucleus
connects the hypothalamus with the limbic system
-
medial nucleus
connects cerebral cortex, the limbic sysetem, and the basal ganglia
-
lateral group nuclei
connects the superior caliculi, the limbic system, and the cortex to all the lobes of the cerebrum
-
hypothalamus
- plays a major role in homeostasis
- place of control for the ANS
- regulation of eating and drinking
- also plays a role in the regulation of emotions and behaveral patterns (pain, aggression, anger)
- regulates the circadian rhythm (sleep)
- contains cell bodies that lead to the pituitary gland (secretes hormones)
-
mammillary region
- serve as relay sttions for reflexes to the sense of smell
- functions in memory
-
epithalamus
- a small region superior and posterior to the thalamus
- consists of the pineal gland and habenular nuclei
- involved in olfaction, especially emotional responses to odors
-
circumventricular organs
part of the epithalamus that is surrounded by the ventricles of the brain and has a incomplete blood brain barrier1
-
pineal gland
- secretes melatonin
- hormone of darkness
-
Cerebrum
- aka: seat of intelegence
- has two hemispheres (right and left) that are held by the falx cerebri
- each hemisphere contains an outer layer of gray mater with a inner layer of white matter and deep gray nuclei in the white mater
-
central sulcus
seperates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe
-
precentral gyrus
- anterior to the central sulcus
- contains the primary motor area
-
postcentral gyrus
- primary somatosensory area
- posterior to the central sulcus
-
fissures
deep grooves inside the gyri
-
sulci
shallow grooves inside the gyri
-
lateral cerebral sulcus
seperates the frontal lobe from the temporal lobe
-
parieto-occipital sulcus
seperates the parietala lobe from the occipital lobe
-
corpus callosum
largest amount of aggrigated white matter found in the brain
-
lobes of the cerebrum
- frontal
- parietal
- temporal
- occipital
-
cerebral white matter
- consist mainly of mylenated axons
- association tracts
- commissural tracts
- projection tracts
-
association tracts
connects nerve impulses between gyri in the same hemisphere
-
commissural tracts
connects nerve impulses from the gyri in one cerebral hemisphere to the gyri in the other cerebral hemisphere
-
projection tracts
conduct nereve impulses from the cerebrum to the lower parts of the CNS including the brain stem and the spinal cord
-
Basal nuceli/ ganglia
- deep within each hemisphere there are three masses of gray matter
- globus pallidus
- putamen
- caudate nucleus
-
alzheimers disease
- affects the basial ganglia first
- early onset: before 60
- late onset: after 60
- liberation of acetylcholine
- beta amyloid plaques
- nuerofibrillary tangles
-
lentiform nucleus
made up of the globus pallidus and the putamen
-
corpus striatum
- made from the caudate nucleus and the lentiform nucleus
- has striations that appear on it
- largest of the basal ganglia nuclei
- works closely with the cerebellum to control of muscles
-
beta amylid plaques
abnormal clusters of dead or dying nerve cells found with alzheimers disease
-
nuerofibrillary tangles
twisted fragments of proteins that clog the nerve cells and prevent them from sending impulses
-
limbic system
- emotional lobe
- plays a primary role in different ranges of emotions
- involved in the olfaction
- experiments done with animals show that the limbic system when stimulated will give extreme pleasure or pain
-
cingulate gyrus
- part of limbic system
- regulates blood pressure and heart rate that goes along with emotional processing
-
parahippocampal gyrus
plays role in formation of spacial memory (knowing where things are in your home)
-
hippocampus
important role in the consolidation of information that leads from short term to long term memory (first region suffers damage from alzheimers)
-
dentate gyrus
contributes to new memory
-
amygdala
plays primary role in formation and storage of memory associated with our emotions
-
fornix
carries signals from the hippocampus to the mammillary bodies
-
components of the limbic system
- septal nuclei
- mammillary bodies
- anterior and medial nuclei
- olfactory bulbs
- fornix
- stria terminalis
- stria medullaris
- medial forebrain bundle
- mammillothalamic
-
concussion
- temporary loss of consciousness
- headache, drousy, lack of concentration
-
contusion
- bruising of the brain
- unconsciousness for less than a minute
- blood ciculates in the CSF
-
laceration
- tearing of the brain
- cause by fracture or a bullet
-
parkinsons disease
causes uncontrollable tremors
-
huntington disease
- genetic
- sometimes there are behavioral disorders
- iratable
- parahoyia
-
tourette syndrome
- form of disfunction in the cortical and subcorticle region of the thalamus and basal ganglia and the frontal cortex
- twitches and the use of bad language
-
schizophrenia
- effects men and women equally
- makes it difficult for people to tell the difference between what is real and not real
-
sensory areas of the cerebral cortex
- primary somatosensory
- primary visual
- primary gustatory
- primary olfactory
-
primary somatosensory
- controls sensory
- receives nerve impulses for touch, pain and temperature
-
motor areas of the cerebral cortex
- primary motor area
- broca's speech area
-
primary motor area
controls voluntary contraction of muscle groups
-
broca's speech area
gives us the ability to understand spoken words
-
association areas of the brain
- prefrontal cortex
- visual association
- auditory association
- common integrative area
- wernicke's area
- premotor area
- frontal eye field area
-
wernicke's area
gives us ability to be bilingual
-
visual association area
looking and understanding what your are looking at
-
CP
- cerebral palsey
- debilitating of movment
- non progressive
-
aphasia
imparement in ability to speak
-
epilepsy
disturbs certain brain activity and causes seizures
-
enchephalitis
irritation and swelling of the brain due to an infection
-
ADHD
attention deficet disorder with hyperactivity
-
Reye's syndrome
- 4-12 yrs old
- detrimentral effect on most organs
-
hemispheric lateralization
- right and left side of the brains are typically symmetrical with a few anatomical differences
- women have more crossover than men
-
right brain
- more musical and artistic
- recognize faces and emotional content of faces
-
left brain
- spoken and written language
- numerical and scientific skills
- ability to use and understand sign language
- reasoning
-
brain waves
- generated by neurons and found by EEG
- electro ecephtogram
- helps dianose things
-
alpha waves
awake and resting waves
-
beta waves
mental activity
-
-
theta waves
emotional stress
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