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Memory
- an indication that learning has persisted over time
- ability to retrieve and store information
- starts as an impulse
- Synapses send information to other neurons
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Encoding
- Part of memory
- when you get information into your brain it happens through all other senses
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Storage
- Part of Memory
- retaining information
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Retrieval
- Part of Memory
- the ability to pull information out of storage and into your consciousness
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3 Stage Model of Memory
- Stage 1:Sensory Memory-sensory memory of something you've just experienced
- Stage 2:Short Term Memory-can hold a lot of information, usually pertinent to what you are immediately doing
- Stage 3:Long Term Memory-Memories that have been stored, these can fade but exist in an unlimited amount
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How does encoding happen?
- Automatic Processing-requires no effort, hard to turn of, happens all the time
- i.e. looking at what someone is wearing even though you're listening to what they're saying
- Effortful Processing-requires effort and the conscious choice to focus on a particular thing
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Effortful Processing
- type of encoding that requires effort and conscious choice to focus on a particular thing
- Happens in 3 ways:
- Rehearsal- memory formed over rehearsing something over and over again
- Spacing Effect- rehearsing in an organized, well spaced, manner over time
- Serial Position Effect- the position something holds in a series has an effect on how well we remember it; easier to remember something at the beginning and the end of a sequence
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How do we encode?
- We encode with meaning; we link it to something we know, building it off of previous information, or relating it to a previous piece of information
- Through Visual or Mental Organization
- Mnemonic-memory aids
- Chunking-acronyms or grouping of information in order to remember it
- Hierarchies- similar to an outline, big topics that include smaller topics in order to rank information
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Iconic
- Sensory Memory
- brief, fleeting, photographic memory
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Echoic
- Sensory Memory
- brief ability to obtain what you just heard
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Short Term Memory
- limit in space and duration
- some say it's limited to 7 pieces of information
- also called your working memory
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Long Term Memory
believed that memory is unlimited
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Why do we forget memories?
- because new memories override old ones
- memory trace decays, if memories aren't used or recalled the memory fades overtime?
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Where are memories stored?
Memories are stored everywhere, not in one single space
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Effect of Stress on Memory
can either make memories more vivid or repressed
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Implicit Memory
- Also known as Procedural Memory
- You know how to do something
- i.e. tie your shoes, brush your hair
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Explicit Memory
- Also known as declarative memory
- You remember something specifically something you have experienced
- i.e. what you did over spring break
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Hippocampus
- a neural center in the limbic system
- helps process explicit memories for storage
- damage to the left side is verbal information loss
- damage to the right side is loss of visual designs and location
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Retrieval
- the ability to recall information that is not in our conscious awareness
- We retrieve it through cues: visual, words, experiences
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Deja Vu
- means "already seen" in French
- a situation's detail reminds you of a past situation that is highly similiar
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State Dependent Memory
when you learn something in one state it's easier to remember in the same state again
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Forgetting
- -Encoding: the information was never fully encoded into your brain
- -Storage: memory trace decays, or fading of the memory as it is stored
- Retrieval: you can’t quite recall a memory (Ex: when something is “on the tip of your tongue”)
- -Memories can also become too distorted or too persistent
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Schacters 7 Sins of Forgetting
- Absent Minded-inattention to detail
- Transience-something is blocking the memory, storage decay over time
- Blocking-can't quite remember it
- Misattribution-our memories become distorted and we're confusing the source of information
- Intrusion-persistent unwanted memories
- Bias-colors recollections and causes your to misremember
- Suggestability-memories become distorted because of suggestions being made in how we are being asked or how other recall the event
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Cognition
all mental activities associated with processing , understanding and communicating
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Concept
a mental grouping of of similar objects group and people
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Prototype
- a mental image that we create that incorporates all the features that we associate with a concept
- our "ideal"
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How do we solve problems?
- Algorithms-step by step procedure that guarantees a solution, goes through all the possible answers until you find the right one, takes more time
- Heuristics-a rule of thumb strategy, look at all the probable answer and find the highest probability of the right answer, more prone to error but takes less time
- Insight-a sudden flash of inspiration
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Obstacles to problem solving
- Confirmation Bias-search for information that confirms our beliefs , biased
- Fixation- the inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective, stress and tension adds to this
- Function Fixedness- when we perceive a function of an object as fixed and unchanging
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Overconfidence
tendency to believe more than we actually know
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Framing
looking at something else from a certain perspective
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Belief Perseverance
our inclination to hold onto beliefs despite evidence that contradicts them
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Language
- our written, spoken and gestured words and the way we combine them
- Babble-at 4 months
- Distinct Babbling at 10 months
- One word sentence at 1 year
- Two word sentence at 2 years
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Language Development Theories
- Skinner- we talk because of association, imitation and reinforcement
- Chomsky-we are prewired for language with a language acquisition device, only need to hear a language in order to begin to learn it
- Whorf- linguistic determinism-different languages impose different realities
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Animal Intelligence
- they can solve problems, make tools
- the can learn human sign language and communicate
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Intelligence
- the mental abilities needed to select, adapt and shape the environment
- can learn from experiences
- solve problems
- reason clearly
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First intelligence test
- Developed by Binet and Simon
- made children take a certain test before starting school
- Belief that:all children develop the same way but at different speeds
- mental age=chronological age
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Stanford Binet Test
Created by Terman to make the French test fit for Americans (California)
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IQ Score
- By Stern
- Mental Ability Score used now
- mental age/chronological age*100
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Spearman
G Factor is General Intelligence
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Gardner and his 8 kinds of intelligence
- no hierachy but inclinations
- Verbal
- Mathematical
- Musical
- Spatial
- Movement
- Intrapersonal-knowing yourself, why you do what you do
- Interpersonal-between people, intuitive about others feelings
- Nature
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Sternberg
- 3 categories of intelligence
- Analytic-academic intelligence
- Creative -novel ideas in novel situations
- Practical-used in daily living
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5 aspects of creativity
- Expertise
- Imaginative Thinking Skills
- Venturesome Personality
- Intrinsic (internal) Information
- Creative Environment
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Intelligence Test
- Wexler Adult Intelligence Scale
- Wexler Intelligence Scale for Children
- Standardization (average scores)
- Reliability (average score is consistent overtime)
- Validity
- Nature and Nurture and Intelligence (nature and nurture influence intelligence but does one outweigh the other?)
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Motivation
- a need or desire that serves to energize behavior and direct it to a goal
- Two kinds: hunger and sex
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Theories of Motivation
- Instinct Theory-fixed pattern that's unlearned and occurs within a species (Salmon spawning in the same place every time, infants rooting)
- Drive Reduction Theory-we act to reduce drive or gain a reward (Homeostasis-maintenance of a steady internal state; Incentive-stimuli which pulls us towards or away from something)
- Arousal Theory-we act to increase arousal (intellectually, sexually) (infants crawl into different rooms to explore)
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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
- Level 1: Physiological needs (food, water, need)
- Level 2: Safety needs (order in world)
- Level 3: Need to belong/love
- Level 4: Esteem Needs
- Level 5: Self Actualization Needs (not everyone gets here)
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Hunger
- Hunger Pangs
- Blood Sugar Drops
- Release of Hormone Orexin- makes you feel hungry
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Set Point
- point in which our weight is set
- where your body feels most comfortable
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Basal Metabolic Weight
rate at which your body expend energy to maintain basic body functions
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How do you lose weight
putting in less calories, force body to use excess fat reserve, exercising
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Rodin and Schlower
- Researched Externals
- People who are cued by external influences, like sight,smell, or sound of food when not really hungry
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Bulimia Nervosa
- eat way too much food and then purge it all out of the system to avoid gaining weight
- Some are exercise fanatics as well
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Anorexia Nervosa
- don't take in enough food to avoid gaining weight
- lose their menstrual cycle because their is no extra fat
- Can lead to osteoperosis and decay of tooth enamel
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Sexual Motivation
- Kinsey-administered first survey on America about sexuality
- Masters-researched reproduction of rabbits; then studied people while having sex (heart beat, blood pressure, etc)
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Sexual Response Cycle
- Stage 1:Excitement
- Stage 2:Plateau
- Stage 3:Orgasm
- Stage 4:Resolution
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Reasons People Claim to Not Use Contraceptives
- Ignorance
- Guilt
- Lack of Communication
- Alcohol Use
- Media Messages
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LeVay's Experiment
- Studied the hypothalamus of straights and gays, believed homosexuality was biological
- Gay men's cell clusters were smaller
- Straight men's cell clusters were bigger
- Believed life factors decided whether or not we take the way we were born or to go the other way
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Island of Inis Beag
- no premarital sex
- keep undergarmets on during sex
- adults wash only what's visible while wearing clothing
- no female orgasm
- men stay away from women while menstruating and after pregnancy
- little sex, lots of anxiety
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Island of Mangaia
- sex is pleasure
- masturbation at young age
- circumcision at age of 13, taught to give orgasm before cumming
- mothers proud of daughters having many sex partners
- lots of sex, little anxiety
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Brazilian Villaga Mehiniku
- focuses on sex
- children know parents other sex partners by name
- gifts for sex
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