-
aggluatinins
gluing; agglutinization
-
-
erythros
red; erythrocytes
-
-
-
karyon
nucleus;megakaryocyte
-
-
-
-
-osis
condition; leukocytosis
-
ox-
presence of oxygen; hypoxia
-
penia
poverty; leukopenia
-
poiesis
making;hemopoiesis
-
punctura
a piercing; venipuncture
-
-
thrombos
clot; thrombocytes
-
-
Objective:
Describe the important components and major functions of blood. (pp.408)
-
Three components of the Cardiovascular system
-
The circulating fluid of the body is _____.
blood
-
Blood is a specialized __________ tissue, that is suspended in a fluid matrix.
connective
-
5 Major Functions of blood
- 1. Transportation of dissolved gasses,nutrients,hormones,and metabolic wastes.
- 2.Regulation of the pH and ion composition of interstitial fluids throughout the body.
- 3.Restriction of fluid losses at injury sites.
- 4.Defense against toxins and pathogens.
- 5.Stabilization of body temperature.
-
The fluid matrix of blood is called
Plasma
-
Blood consists of
- 55% plasma
- 45% Formed elements
-
Plasma
Dissolved proteins as rather then network of insoulable fibers.
-
Formed elements are
blood cells, and cell fragments(platelets)
-
RBC
- Red blood cells, Or Erythrocytes
- Transport O2, and CO2
-
WBC
- White blood cells, or leukocytes
- part of body's defense system
-
Platelets
small membrane enclosed packets of cytoplasm that contain enzymes and factors important for blood clotting
-
Plasma and formed elements constitute _____ blood
whole
-
Arterial puncture
- arterial stick
- used to evaluate blood gass exchange at the lungs
-
Three characteristics of whole blood
- Temp around 100.4
- Viscosity- 5 times as viscous as water
- pH 7.35- 7.45
-
Objective: Discuss the composition and functions of plasma(pp.408-410)
-
Plasma
- Water 92%
- dissolved proteins 7%
- Other solutes 1%----->Electrolytes,organic nutrients, organic wastes
-
Plasma and interstitial fluid account for most of
the volume of ECF in the body
-
Plasma Proteins(7%)
- Albumins
- Globulins
- Fibrinogen
- Regulatory proteins
-
Plasma Proteins
Albumins (60%)
Major contributor to osmotic pressure of plasma;transports lipids,steroid hormnes
-
Plasma Proteins
Globulins(35%)
Transports ions,hormones,lipids;immune function
-
Plasma Proteins
Fibrinogen(4%)
Essential component of clotting system; can be converted to insoluble fibrin
-
Plasma Proteins
Regulatory proteins(<1%)
enzymes,proenzymes, hormones
-
Other solutes (1%)
- Electrolytes
- Organic nutrients
- Organic wastes
-
Other solutes
Electrolytes
- Normal extracellular fluid ion composition essential for vital cellular activities
- Examples are
- Na+
- K+
- Ca2+, Cl-, HCO3-
-
Other solutes
Organic nutrients
- Used for ATP production,growth, and maintenance of cells
- Example:
- fatty acids
- glucose
- amino acids
-
Other solutes
Organic wastes
- Carried to sites of breakdown or excretion
- Examples:
- Urea
- billrubin
-
Primary difference between plasma and intersititial fluid:
- concentrations of dissolved proteins and the levels of respiratory gasses (O2 and CO2)
- Protein difference due to plas,a proteins are too large to cross walls of capillaries.
- gas difference is due to respiratory activities of cells
-
Albumins
- Most abundent protein
- contribute to osmotic pressure of plasma
-
Globulins
Antibodies and transport proteins.
-
Antibodies
Also called immunoglobulins, attack proteins and pathogens
-
Transport proteins
bind small ions,hormones, or compounds that might otherwise be lost at the kidney or have very low solubility in water
-
Both albumins and globulins can bind to
lipids
-
protein/lipid combo readily dissolves in plasma this:
allows the Cardiovascular system transports insolluable lipids to peripheral tissues
-
Globular proteinds involved in lipid transport care called
lipoproteins
-
Fibrinogen functions in
blood clotting
-
Under certain conditions, fibrinogen molvecules interact and form large insoluable strands of
fibrin
-
Serum is the
fluid left after clotting proteins are removed
-
What organ synthesizes more then 90% of the plasma proteins including all albumins and fibrinogens, and most of the globulins.
Liver
-
Objective:
Describe the origins and production of the formed elements in the blood. (pp. 410-411)
-
Formed elements in Whole blood are
-
Formed elements are produced by
hemopoiesis, or hemATOpoiesis
-
Embryonic blood cells appear in the bloodstream in the _ week of development
3rd
-
The primary sites of blood formation for the first 8 weeks of development are:
Vessels of the yolk sac, which is an embryonic membrane
-
As organ systems being to develop, what moves out of the bloodstream and into the liver,thymus, and bone marrow.
Embryonic blood cells
-
Those embryonic blood cells become:
- pluripotent stem cells, or hemocytoblasts.
- which divide to produce myeloid stem cells and lympoid stem cells
-
From the 2ed to 5th month of development, what two organs become the primary site of hemopoisesis
Liver and spleen
-
In Adults the only site where hemopoiesis preformed is:
- Red bone marrow
- only site for RBC
- Primary for WBC
-
Objective: Discuss the characteristics of RBC's (pp.411-416)
-
RBC's contain hemoglobin which is?
a pigment that binds and transports oxygen and CO2.
-
RBS are most the most abundant blood cell and account for what % of formed elements
99%
-
RBC's per Microliter of whole blood is
RBC count
- Adult males contain roughly 5.4 million RBCs
- females 4.8 million RBCS
a single drop contains 260 million RBCs
1/3 of 75 trillion cells in the human body are RBCs
-
The percentage of whole blood volume occupied by cellular elements is known as?
Hematocrit
-
Hematocrit values in males VRS females
- males: 46% range
- Female: 42% range
-
Difference between male and female hematocrit levels are due to:
- Hormones
- Androgens(male) stimulate RBC production
- Estrogens (female) do not.
-
Whole blood contains 1000 RBC for each WBC so
- hematocrit closely approximates volume of RBS
- Hematocrit values are often reported as VPRC(volume of packed red cells) or PCV (packed cell volume)
-
hematocrit decreases due to
result of internal bleeding or problems with RBC formation
-
Structure of RBCs
Biconcave disc with a thin central region and thick outer margin
-
This shape has two important effects on RBC's
- Gives each RBC a relatively large surface are volume ratio that increases the rate of diffusion
- It enables RBCs to bend and flex to squeeze through narrow capillaries
-
RBCs loose most of their organelles,including mitochondria,ribosomes, and nuclei, during?
Their formation
-
RBCS cannot
Undergo cell division, and syntheize structural proteins
-
RBC's obtain energy only through
anaerobic metabolism and rely on glucose obtained from surrounding plasma
-
The lack of mitochondria insures that the oxygen they absorb will...
be carried to peripheral tissues and not used by the RBC
-
Molecules of Hb (hemoglobin) account for over __% of an RBCs intracellular proteins
95%
-
Hemoglobin is responsible for the cells ability to?
Transport 02 and CO2
-
Two pairs of globular proteins combine to form a
single Hb molecule
-
Each subunits of Hb contain an organic pigment called
heme
-
Each heme molecule...
holds an iron ion so that it can interact with an O2 molecule
-
iron-oxygen interaction is very weak, so
they can easily separate
-
Amount of 02 that bind to Hb depends of conditions of surrounding plasma:
-
If O2 is abundent in plasma
Hb molecules gain O2 until all heme molecules are occupied.
-
As O2 concentration declines and CO2 rise
Hb molecules release their oxygen reserves and the globular portion of the Hb bind to CO2
-
At the lungs where diffusion brings O2 into the plasma and removes CO2, Hb molecules respond by releasing ___ and absorbing __
CO2, O2
-
In the peripheral tissues, active cells consume O2 and produce CO2. As blood flows through these areas, O2 is diffuses out of the plasma and CO2 diffuses in. Hb releases its bound __ and binds ___.
O2 and CO2
-
Anemia
Low hemarocrit or RBCs jave reduced Hb content.
Premature muscle fatique, weakness, and general lack of energy
-
Round trip for RBC in the circulatory system usually takes less then?
1 minute
-
RBC life span is about
120 days
-
1% of RBC are replaced
each day and approximately 3 million new RBCs enter circulation each second.
-
When RBCs age or rupture, Hb is breaks down in the blood and the indivdual polypeptide chains are filtered from the blood by the?
kidney and is lost in urine
-
The condition Hemoglobinuria is when?
large numbers of RBCS break down in the circulation, urine can turn reddish or brown thus producing hemoglobinuria
-
Only 10% of RBS survive long enough to rupture or_________ in the blood stream
hemolyze
-
Macrophages in the liever,spleen, and bone marrow usually recongnise and engulf RBCs before they undergo hemolysis, thus doing what?
recycling Hb and other components of RBCs
-
Steps of Hb recycling 1
- Four globular proteins of each Hb are dissembled into their component amino acids.
- They are either metabolized by the cell or released into circulation for use by other cells.
-
Steps of Hb recycling 2
- Each heme molecule is stripped of its iron and converted to biliverdin, then converted to bilirubin and released into circulation.
- Liver cells absorb the billirubin and release it into the small intestine within bile.
- billirubin that reaches the large intestine is converted to related pigment molecules with are either absorbed into the blood stream or excreted in urine
-
Steps of Hb recycling 3
- Iron extracted from heme may be stored in the marcophage or realeased into the bloodstream where it binds to transferrin (plasma transport protein)
- RBCs developing in the bone marrow absorb ammino acids and transferrin from circulation and then make new Hb molecules
- Excess transferrins are removed in the liver and spleen
-
Biliverdin
an organic compound with a green color
-
bilirubin
orange yellow pigment
-
If bile ducts are blocked, bilirubin diffuses into peripheral tissue giving them a
yellow color most apparent in the sking and sclera of the eyes
-
most components of an RBC are recycled either bu
hemolusis or phagocytosis
-
Normal iron levels
- male 3.5g in ionic form Fe2+, 2.5g bound to Hb
- female 2.4 g and 1.9 g
-
RBC formation or erythopoiesis occurs in?
Red bone marrow or Myeloid tissue
-
Myeloid tissue is located in the
vertebrae,sternum,scapulae,pelvis, and proximal limb bones
-
Other marrow ares contain a fatty tissue known as
yellow bone marrow
-
Under extreme conditions
yellow bone marrow can convert to Red bone marrow
-
Specialists in blood formation and function are
hematologists
-
RBCs result from the divsion of ____________ in the red bone marrow.
hemocytoblasts (pluripotent stem cells)
-
Hemocytoblasts produce
myeloid stem cells
-
Eythroblasts
- are very immature RBCs that actively synthesize Hb,
- After about 4 days of differntiation, each eyrthoblast sheds its nucleus and becomes a reticulocyte.
-
After about two or three days in the bone marrow synthesizing proteins Reticulocytes enter the
bloodstream
-
After 24 hrs reticulocytes
complete their maturation and become mature RBCS
-
Erythropoisesis needs what to proceed normally
the red bone marrow must receive adquate supplies of ammino acids, iron and vitamens (B12, B6, and folic acid)
-
pernicious anemia is a result of
Lack of B12
-
EPO
- erythropoiesis stimulating hormone
- appears in plasma when peripheral tissues especially kidneys are exposed to low oxygen concentration.
-
Hypoxia is
state of low tissue oxygen levels
-
EPO is released when
- during anemia
- when blood flow of the kidneys declines
- when oxygen content of the air in the lungs declines
- respiratory surfaces of the lungs are damaged
-
Two major effects of EPO
- stimulates increased cell division rates in erythroblasts and in the stem cells that produce erythroblasts
- speeds up maturation of RBS, primarily acceleration the rate of Hb synthesis
-
EPO ability is important to
person recovering from severe blood loss
-
If hematocrit rise over 65 or ore
the increase in blood viscosity increases the workload of the heart which can lead to sudden death from heart failure
-
Objective:
Explain the factors that determine a persons blood type, and why blood types are important.(pp. 417-419)
-
Antigens
most often proteins that can trigger an immune response
-
All your cell membranes contain antigens, and attack substances they see as
foreign
-
Absence or presence of these antigens determines your blood type
A,B, and Rh
-
Type A
Has only A antigen
-
-
-
Type O
has neither A or B
-
Rh+
indicates presence of the Rh antigen on the surface of RBCs
-
Rh-
Absence of the Rh antigen
-
Plasma contains antibodies/agglutinins that will attack surface antigens of a
different blood type
-
Type AB
universal reciever
-
-
Binding of antigens and antibodies is called
- Aggllutination
- RBCS may hemolyze
-
Cross reactions or transfusion reacions can be avoided by ensuring blood types of donor and recipient are
compatible
-
Rh- are present only if the indivudal has been
sentized by a previous exposure to Rh-
can occur with a Rh- mom carries Rh- positive fetus
-
Objective:
Categorize the various WBC on the basis of their structures and functions. (pp. 419-424)
-
WBCs
- known as leukocytes
- Larger then RBC
- they contain a nucleus and other organelles
- lack Hb
- defend body against invasion by pathogens and remove toxins,wastes,abnormal or damaged cells
-
Tranditionally divided in two groups
- Granulocytes (with abundent stained granules)
- agranulocytes (with few if any stained granules)
- Misleading because grandules in granulocytes are actually secretory vesicles and lysosomes
-
Granulocytes
- neutrophils
- eosinophils
- basophils
-
-
Most WBCs in body are located in
Connective tissue proper or in organs of the lymphatic system
-
WBC circulation and movement
- only circulate for short period of lifespan
- migrate through loose and bense tissue of body
- use bloodstream to travel from one organ to another and area of invasion or injury
- when problems are detected WBC leave bloodsteam to enter damaged area
-
Circulating WBC have 4 characteristics
- 1.Capable of amoeboid movement. Allows WBCs to move from walls of blood vessels, and when outside the bloodstream,through surrounding tissues.
- 2.Migrate out of bloodstream through diapesis
- 3.Positive chemotaxis-They are attracted to specific chemical stimuli,guides WBS to invading pathogens,damaged tissues, and other active WBCs.
- 4.Neutrophils,esinophils, and monocytes are capable of phagocytosis.
-
amoeboid movement
is gliding motion accomplished by the flow of cytoplasm into slender cellular process extended out from the cell
-
diapedeis
WBC can enter surrounding tissue by squeezing between adjacent epithelial cells in the capillary wall
-
Neutrophils and esinophils are sometimes called
microphages to distinguish them from lager marcophages in connective tissue
-
macrophages are
monocutes that have moved out of the blood stream and have become actively phagocytic
-
Which WBC contribute to nonspecific defences?
- neutrophils
- eosinophils
- basophils
- monocytes
-
non specific defense
responds to a variety of stimuli but always in the same way.
-
WBC responsible for specific defenses is
Lymphocytes
-
specific defenses
the body's ability to attack invading pathogens or foreign proteins on a specific basis
-
Neutrophils
- 50-70% circulating WBC
- very dense controted nucleus with 4-5 lobes
- Usually first WBC to arrive at injury site
- Very active phagocytes
- specialize in attacking and digesting bacteria
- Short life span(10 hrs)
- during its breakdown releases chemicals that attract other neutrophils
- dead nutrophils help make puss
-
Eosinophils
- 2-4% of WBC
- simimlar in size to neutrophils
- two lobed nuculeus
- red dye eosin
- Attack objects coated wtih antibodies
- primary mode of attack exocytosis of toxic compounds.
- Numbers increase dramatically during aparasitic infection of an allergic reaction
-
Basophils
- somewhat smaller then neutrophils
- relatively rare less then 1% of WBC
- Migrate to site of injury,cross the capillary wall to accumulate within damaged tissues.
- Contain heparin and histamine
- basophil release of histamine that enhances local inflammation initiated by mast cells
-
Lymphocytes
- larger then RBC
- 20-30% of WBC in blood
- do not rely on phagocytosis
- attack foreign/abnormal cells
- secrete antibodies into circulation
-
leukopenia
indicates reduced numbers of WBCs
-
Leukocytosis
refers to excessive numbers of WBCs
-
Leukemia
usually indicated by extreme ammounts of WBC
-
Hemocytoblasts produce
- lymphoid stem cells which give rise to lymphocytes
- myeloid stem cells which give rise to all other types of formed elements
-
lyphopoiesis
process of lymphocyte production
-
WBCs other then lymphocytes are regulated by hormones cakked
- CSFs (colony-stimulating factors)
- 4 CSFs have been identified
- each targets single stem cell lines or groups of stem cell lines
-
-
Platelets
made of thrombocytes
-
megakaryocytes continusouesly shed cytoplasm in small membrane enclosed packets, those packets are referred to as
platelets
-
Platelets initiate the clotting process and help close injured blood cells. They are a major participant in
vascular clotting system
-
individual platelet circulates for
9-12 days
-
thrombocytopenia
abnormally low platelet count
-
thrombocytosis
accellerated platelet formation in response to infection,inflammation or cancer
-
Objective: Describe mechanisms that reduce blood loos after an injury(pp.425-428)
-
Hemostasis
- process that halts bleeding, preventing the loss of blood through the walls of damaged vessels.
- helps establish framework for tissue repair
-
Three overlapping steps of hemostasis
- vascular phases
- platelet phase
- coagulation phase
-
Vascular phase 1
- Cutting of a blood vessel triggers a contraction in smooth muscle fibers in vessel(vascular spasm)
- can slow or stop the blood loss through the wall of a small vessel.
- vascular spams lasts about 30 min
-
Platelet phase 2
- Platelets begin to attach to stiky endothelial surfaces and exposed collagen fibers within 15 seconds of injury.
- This attachment starts the platelet phase
- as more platelets stick together they form a platelet plug
-
coagulation phase 3
- coagulation phase does not start until 30 seconds or more after vessel has been damaged.
- involves complex squence of events that convert circulating fibrinogen into fibrin
-
Normal blood clotting cannot occur unless the plasma contains
the necessary clotting factors which include calcium ions and 11 different plasma proteins.
-
During the coagulation phase, clotting proteins interact in sequence known as
a chain reaction or cascade
-
Three cascades which result in formation of a blood clot
-
extrinsic begins
outside the blood steam in the vessel wall
-
intrinsic begins
inside the blood steam
-
The cascades join at the common pathway through the activation of
factor X, clotting protein produced by liver
-
extrinsic pathway
- begins with the release of a lipoprotein tissue factor by damaged endothelial cells or peripheral tissues
- greater the damage the more tissue factor is released and faster clotng occurs
- tissue factor combines with calciumions and factor VII to form enzyme capable of activating factor X
-
intrinsic pathway
- begins with the activation of proenzymes exposed to collagen fibers at the injury site
- this pathway proceeds with assistace of platelet facor released by aggregating platelets
- after series of linked events, activated clotting proteins form an enzyme capable of activating factor X
-
Common pathway
begins when enzymes from either the extrinsic or intrinsic pathway activate factor X, forming the enzyme prothrombinase
-
Prothrombinase converts the protein prothrombin into
thrombin
-
Thrombin then completes the clottong process by converting
fibrinogen to fibrin
-
Thrombin stimulates the formation of
tissue factor and release of platelet factor by platelets
-
Calcium Ions and Vitamin K affect
almost every aspect of clotting process
-
All threepathways require
calcium ions
-
Vitamen K must be present so
the liver can synthesize 4 of the clotting facorts (including prothrombin)
-
Clot retraction
once fibrin netowork has appeared, platelets contract pulling the torn edges of the wound closer
-
fibrinolysis
as repairs proceed the clot gradually dissolves, beings with the activation of plasminogen by thrombin and t-PA (tissue plasminogen activator) activation of plasminogen produces plasmin
-
Plasmin
beings digesting the fibrin stands and breaking down the clot
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