Neuro Study Stuff.txt

Somatic and Autonomic nervous systems

Transmits sensory information to the CNS and produces facial and skeletal movements.

consists of sympatheric (fight and flight) and parasympatheric (rest and digest) --> handles arousing vs. calming functions

• 1. Bone: (Brain protected by the skull, the spinal cord is encased in a series of interlocking bony vertabrae)
• 2. Meniges: (Dura mater (outer), Arachnoid membrane (middle), pia mater (inner)
• 3. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): cushions the brain and spinal cord, continually being made and drained intothe circulatory system
• 4. Blood Brain Barrier: (comprised of cells of capillaries tightly joined with one another, prevents blood-borne subtances circulating in the body from crossing into the CNS)

• 1. Dendrites
• 2. Soma
• 3. Axon Hillock
• 4. Axon 
• 5. Axon Terminal

SpineBranching filaments of a neuron, they receive information from other cells

The cell body, central part of the cell containing the nucleus

single neruonal process that transmits information away from the cell

the site of origin of a nerve impulse

The voltage gated sodium channels are open/inactive and depolorization/repolorization -- nothing you do can trigger another action potential

During the RRP the voltage channels are returning to the closed state, but only a few channels will be closed so it requires a very strong stimulus to trigger a new action potential.

Small space between the axon terminal andthe post synaptic membrane of the receptor cell

membrane of the axon terminal, encloses the synaptc vesicles that contain neurotransmitters

Contrains receptor molecules that recieve chemical messages from the presynaptic cell

Excitatory postsynaptic potential: causes a depoloarization (+ions flow into neruron) of the postsynaptic target

Causes a hyperpolarization (+ions flow out of neuron) of the postsynaptic target

• 1. Reuptake (reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by a transporter of a presynaptic neruron)
• 2. Enzymatic degradation 
• 3. Diffusion

Connection between neurons and other cells

Space between neurons, most neurons don't connect physically.

the end of an axon, forms the presynaptic protion of the synapse. Is close to the dendritic spine of a neighboring neuron.

• 1. Ependymal cell: (Samll, ovoid; secretes CSF)
• 2. Astrocyte: (Star shaped, symmetrical; nutritive and support function)
• 3. Microglial: (Small, mesodermally derived; defensive function)
• 4. Oligodendrogilial cell: (Asymmetrical; forms insulating myeling around axons in brain and spinal cord)
• 5. Schwann cell: (Asymmetrical; wraps around peripheral nervs to form insulating myelin)

T

Because of reginonal differencs in the cytoarchitecture of neurons

cell bodies and capillaries

toward (recieve)

Away (send)

axons covered with glial cells

a large collection of axons, aka. a fiber pathway (distinctively white)

many neruons grouped together (distinctively gray)

Afferent (receiving), sensory to the brain

Efferent (sending), motor information to the body

Sensory & Voluntary

• 1. Hindbrain
• 2. Midbrain 
• 3. Diecephalon

• 1. Basal Ganglia
• 2. Cerebral Cortex 
• 3. Limbic Lobe

begins where the spinal cord enterst the skull

• 1. Cerebellum
• 2. Reticular Formation 
• 3. Pons 
• 4. Medulla

Learning and coordinateing/ sequencing skilled movements; posture and balance

sleep-wake regulation; locomotion

Maintains general arousal/consciousness

maintains vital body funtctions (respirations, heart rate etc.)

• 1. Tectum (roof) (located dorsally)
• 2. Tegmentum (floor) (located ventrally)

• 1. Superior colliculi: processes visual input
• 2. Inferior colliculi: processes auditory input

Sensory inputs, and they orient us to visual and auditory signals.

• 1. Red nucleus: controls limb movement
• 2. Sustantia nigra: dopaminergic neurons, involved in reward, control of movement
• 3. Periaaqueductal gray matter: controls species specific behavior (eg. sexual behavior) modulates pain response.

• 1. Hypothalamus: (Involvely in nearly all aspects of motivated behavior (eg. hunger,thirst, sexual behavior)
• 2. Epithalamus: (Poorly understood - involved in bio-rhythms, huger,thirst)
• 3. Thalamus: (Relays incoming (afferent) senesory information to appropiate targets; relays infomraiton between cortical areas; relays information between forebrain and brainstem.

• 1. Cerebrum
• 2. Cerebellum
• 3. Brainstem

• 1. Basal Ganglia (Involuntary motor control, habitual learning  action selection (selecting the correct action at the correct time)
• 2. Limbic Lobe (Amygdala, Hippocampus, eptum, Cingulate Cortex)
• 3. Cerebral Cortex (neocortex; 80% of the human brain

The Basal Ganglia and Limbic lobe are subcortical

• 1. Amygdala: (Emotion and species typical behaviors)
• 2. Hippocampus: (Memory and spatial navigation)
• 3. Septum: (Emotion and special typical behavior)
• 4. Cingulate Cortex: (Affectively-related cognitive processing)
• EMOTION

• 1. Occipiatal
• 2. Parietal 
• 3. Temporal
• 4. Frontal

• 1. Long ipsilateral connections between one lobe and another (fasciculi)
• 2. Relatively short connections between one part of a lobe and another
• 3. Inter-hemispheric (bridging) connections between homotopic points in contralateral hemispheres
• 4. Connections between cortical areas through the thalamus

Same Side

Opposite sides

• 1. Connections between one lobe of the brain to another
• 2. one part of a lobe to another part
• 3. one hemishpere of the brain to another

The signal that goes through the axons going from place to another place.

positive (Na+. K+)

negative, (CL-)

When membrane channel opens and positive sodium ions rush into the cell and change the membrane potential and make them positive. This is the first phase of the action potential.

After Na+ comes in the charge is very very positive, because the membrane potential is that positive, the voltage gated potassium channels open and K+ escapes because it wants the charge to be negative. This is repolarization.

Depolarization

Repolarization

Hyperpolarization

As K+ escapes we overshoot and go lower than the resting membrane potential. Becomes OVERpolarized.

Pumps 3 Na+ ions out and 2 K+ ions in and bring the potential back to its resting state.

Neurotransmitters

Membrane that comes right before the space (synaptic cleft)

post-synaptic membrane

reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by a transport of a presynaptic neuron. Allows recyling of neurotransmitters

• 1. Acetylcholine (ACh): PNS; activates muscules // CNS; forms the cholinergic sytem, role in the enchancement of sensory perceptions sustaining memory and attn.
• 2. Dopamine (DA): CNS; voluntary movement, learning, cognition, motivation and reward
• 3. Norepinephrine (NE):
• 4. Serotonin (5-HT)
• 5. Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)
• 6. Glutamate (Glu)
• 7. Endorphins: produce feelings of wellbeing

Because of the increased density of cone cells in the fovea

Increased density of rod cells in the peripheral retina

cornea

retina

photoreceptors

• 1. Rods: (Sensitive to dim light -> night vision); located in peripheral retina (absent in fovea)
• 2. Cones: (sensitive to bright light -> day and color vision (densely packed in the fovea)

dim, night vision, not present in fovea

bright, day vision/ color, yes present and densely packed.

Light is convereted into cehmical energey in the photoreceptors, then converted into action potentials

Air pressure waves are converted into mecanical energy. Mech energy actives aduitory ereceptor cells which then produce action potentials

• 1. Outter
• 2. Middle
• 3. Inner

• 1. Sound waves vibrate the tymapnic membrane (eardrum)
• 2. Three bones in the ear pass vibrations to the cochlea
• 3. Cilia make contact with tectorial membrane
• 4. When hair cells are excited by virateion a nerve impulse is generated in the auditory nerve
• 5. Information is then sent to the brain and interpreted as sound

Eardrum, it vibrates in response to sound waves and changes acoustical energry into mechanical energy.

• 1. Incus
• 2. Stapes
• 3. Malleus

• 1. cochlea (hearing)
• 2. vestibular system (balance)

cochlea

auditory receptors

cochlea deals with hearing, vestibular system is for balance

ventral is the longer route

little human, associated with disportionate sizes; larger area = higher sensitivity

inner ear, percieve our own motion and maintain balance

• 1. otolith organs: (repsond to linerar acceleration, sensitive to changes in the position of the head)
• 2. semicircular canals: (can respond to any movement of the head)

• 1. primary visual cortex (striate cortex)
• 2. BA 17

• 1. Estrastriate cortex
• 2. BA 18 and 19

BA 17,18, and 19

• 1. Occiptial Cortex
• 2. VA 1-5

• 1. Primary visual cortex
• 2. Recieve input from lateral geniculate nucleus

Located in the middle of occipital lobe

small differences in visual orientation, spatial frequency and color

• 1. where pathway
• 2. Recieve input from lateral geniculate nucleus

• 1. What pathway
• 2. Associated with form and object recognition

consolidation of long-term memories

adding value and meaning to memory, and response

Frontal lobe, just about the STG

Just infront of the occipital lobe, ventral to parietal, dorsalto temporal.

The superior temporal

Higher level cognitive control; working memory, planning etc.

Frontal

Affectively laden judgment and behavioral control