AP Exam 2 Joints Skeleton Integument

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5 S/s of inflammation
- Swelling
- Redness
- Heat
- Induration/immobility
- Pain
- "PRISH"
Superficial Wound
- Only epidermis involved
- Cells broken, cytoplasm leaks, makes a thin scab
- Under the scab, stratum basale breaks apart and reproduces at a high rate
- When cells touch, they stop and begin to fill in and keratinize
Deep wound
- Involves dermis
- Bleeding
- Inflammation
Inflammation
- Upon injury, mast cells are broken, releasing vesicles of histamine and heparin.
- Heparin prevents spread of clot
- Kinin attract WBC's, induce vasodilation
Prostaglandin
- cases changes in vessels
- sensitize to pain
Histamine (7 lines)
- dilates vessels
- increases blood vessel permeability, causing:
- local edema (swelling),
- warmth,
- redness
- attraction of other inflammatory cells
- irritates nerve endings (leading to itching or pain).
Sweat glands
- Suderiferous
- Eccrine-watery, between hair follicles
- Apocrine-oily, in crotch, armpits and aerola along a hair shaft, produces odor when bacteria interacts with it.
- Apocrine are animal communication method
Lacunae

Hole occupied by cell
Osteocyte

Cell inside lacunae
Lamellae

thin plate of bone, circular
Central Canal

also Haversian canal, center of osteon
Transverse canal

also Volkmann's canal, perpindicular canals connecting osteons
Canaliculi

Tiny canals from central canal to all lamellae
Periosteum

membrane outer surface of bone
Bone projections

tuberosity, tubercle, crest, line, epicondyle, spine, process
Projections for articulation

head, condyle, facet
Depressions

meatus, sinus, fossa, groove, fissure, foramen
Functional classification of joints

Synarthrotic, amphiarthrotic, diarthrotic
Synovial joints
- cavity-synovial fluid,
- articular capsule-fibrous capsule, synovial membrane
- articular (hyaline) cartilage-chondrocytes, lacunae
- reinforcing lagaments
- nursae
Synarthritic

No movement-suture-fibrous cartilage
Amphiarthritic

Slightly moveable-symphoses
Diarthritic
- Freely moveable
- Synovial
Hyaline Cartilage
- Chondrocytes
- Lacunae
Bursa

Tendon sheet to reduce friction
Macro Anatomy of Bone (7)
- Periosteum-perforating Sharpey's fibers
- Endosteum
- Spongy (cancellous) bone
- Diaphysis
- epiphysis
- epiphyseal plate/line
- Medullary cavity
Micro anatomy of bone (7)
- Osteon (Haversian system)
- Lacunae
- Osteocyte
- Lamellae
- Central (Haversian) canal
- Transverse (Volkmann's) canal
- Canaliculi
Axial Skeleton 3
- Skull-facial and cranial
- Vertebral Column-vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx
- Thoracic cage-Costal bones, sternum
- Hyoid
Appendicular Skeleton-Upper (10 lines)
- 126 bones
- Pectoral girdle-pectoral girdle, scapula
- Humerus
- Ulna
- Radius
- Carpals (16)
- Metacarpals (10)
- Phalngeals (28)
Appendicular-Lower (8 lines)
- Pelvic Girdle-coxal bone
- Femur
- Patella
- Tibia
- Fibula
- Tarsals
- Metatarsals
- Phalangeals
SkeletalFeatures(6)
- Levers
- Storage-of-minerals
- Hemopoesis
- Scaffolding-and-support
- Landmarks
- Armor-protective
- SHALLS
Three-skeletal-tissues
- DenseConnective
- Cartilage
- Bone
Dense-connective-tissue-in-skeleton (4)
- Periosteum-covers-all-bones
- Nutrients
- Stem-cells-regeneration(osteoblasts,chondroblasts)
- Protects-maintains-integrity
Cartilage-in-skeletal-system (7)
- Specialized-connective-tissue
- Rigid-matrix-
- mix-of-fibers(collagen-elastin)
- Mineral-salts
- Hyaluronic-acid
- Mostly-water
- Bearing-surfaces-embryonic-bones-tendon-ligament-attachments
Collagen-vs-elastic
- Collagen-rope-like-structure-high-tensile-strength-fine-fibers-not-visible
- Elastin-bent-proteins-stretchy
Three-types-of-cartilage

Hyaline-elastic-fibrocartilage
Hyaline-cartilage
- Costal-articular-embryonic-bones
- Most-susceptible-to-damage
- Nonvasccular
- Often-replaced-by-scar-tissue
- Regenerated-by-stem-cells
Enzyme-MRSA-eats-flesh

Hyaluronidase
Elastic-Cartilage
- Ears-epiglottis-some-larynx
- High-density-of-elastin
- Flexible/resilient
- Perichondrium-less-susceptible-to-degeneration
Fibrocartilage(6)
- Intervetebral-disks,symphoses
- Intermediate-between-cartilage&dense-connective
- Resists-deformation
- Always-found-with-dense-connective-tissue
- No-perichondrium
- Easily-repaired
Three types of skeletal cartilage –

Hyaline, Elastic, Fibrocartilage
Hyaline Cartilage –
- the most common type. contains only very fine collagen fibers.
- the matrix has a glassy trranslucent appearance.
- found in the nose and at the end of long bones and the ribs
- froms rings in the walls of respiratory passages.
- the fetal skeleton is made up of this type of cartilage, later it is replaced by bone.
Elastic Cartilage –

much more flexible than hyaline cartilage and tolerates repeated bending better w/ more elastic fibers (cartilages of external ear and the epiglottis)
Fibrocartilage –

Type of cartilage that contains both chondrocytes and collagen; used for fusion & support and found in the knees and intervertebral disks of the back
Number of bones –

206
Two classifications of bones –

axial and appendicular
Axial Skeleton –

forms the long axis of the body, includes the bones of the skull, vertebral column and rib cage
Appendicular skeleton –

consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs and the girdles
Types of bones –

flat bones, long bones, irregular bones
Long bones –

bones are longer than they are wide all limb bones excpet the patella, wrist and ankle bones
Short bones –

roughly cube shaped, nbones of the wrist and ankle
Sesamoid bones –

special type of short bone that form in a tendon ex. patella
Flat bones –

thin flattened and a bit curved bones ex. sternum, scapula, ribs, and most skull bones
Irregular bones –

bones that have complicated shapes that fit no other classification ex. vertebrae and hip bones
functions of bones –

support, protection, movement,mineral and growth factor starge, blood cell formation, fat storage,energy storage
Hematopoiesis –

formation of blood cells
Bone textures –

spongy and compact bone
Compact Bone –

external layer of bone
Spongy Bone –

internal layer of bone also called cancellous bone
Trabeculae –

honeycomb of small needle-like or flat pieces
Structures of long bone –

Diaphysis, epiphysis, membranes
Diaphysis –

shaft forming the long axis of the bone
Epiphysis –

the bone ends of a long bone
Epiphyseal line –

between the epiphysis and the diaphysisof an adult long bone
epiphyseal plate –

a disc of hyaline cartilage that grows during childhood to lengthen the bone
Periosteum –

a white double layered membrane covering the external surface of the entire bone
Osteoblasts

- bone forming cells which secrete bone matrix
Osteoclasts –

bone destroying cells
Endosteum –

delicate connective tissue covering the internal bone surfaces
Osteon –

the structural unit of compact bone, an elongated cylinder located parallel to the long axis of the bone, tiny weight bearing pillars
lamella –

a hollow tube of the osteon filled with red bone marrow
central canal –

inner hole of the osteon holding the nerve vein and artery
perforating canals –

canal lying at right angles to the long axis of the bone connecting the blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to eh central canls and medullary cavity
Lacunae –

small cavities in bone that contain osteocytes
Canaliculi –

hairlike canals connecting the lacunae to each other and the central canal
Ossification –

the process of bone formation
joints –

articulations
Chondrocytes –

form cartilage
perforating canal –

have blood vessels that carry blood to haversion canals
Trabeculla –

pattern of lamella in cancellous bone
Yellow bone marrow –

fat or adipose tissue
Intramembranous ossification –(4)
- the formation of the skull and the clavicle (flat bones)
- 1. mesenchyme layed down in the shape of the bone
- 2. mesenchyme get replaced with loose connective tissue
- 3. osteoblasts move in and turn into bone
- 4. osteoclasts move in and turn into cancellous bone
Steps of endochondral ossification –
- osteoblasts and bone collar forms,
- cartilage in the center of the diaphysis calcifies and then develops cavities,
- the peristeal bud invades the internal cavities and spongy bone begins to form,
- the dipahysis elongates and a medullary ciavity forms as ossification continues,
- secondary ossification begins in the epiphysis,
- the eiphiphysis ossifies when completed cartilage remainsin the epiphysela plates and articular cartilage
Repair of fractures –
- 1. clot forms
- 2. fibrocartilagenous callous forms wherever their is blood
- 3. bony callous forms
- 4. bone remodels by osteoclasts breaking down extra bone
What are the 5 functions of the skeletal system? –

support, structure, aid in movement, blood cell formation and storage
What minerals does the bones store? –

calcium and phosphate
What does the body use calcium for? –

bone formation, muscle contraction and nerve function
How does the skeletal system aid in movement? –

The bones provide an attachment point for the skeletal muscles.
How do the skeletal muscles attach to bones? –

using tendons and ligaments
What are the 4 bone shapes? –

long bone, short bone, flat bone and irregular bones
What is an example of a long bone? –

femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, radius, ulna
What is an example of a short bone? –

phalanges (fingers/toes)
What is an example of a flat bone? –

skull, scapula
What is an example of an irregular bone? –

Vertebra
What is the central shaft of a long bone called? –

diaphysis
What are the extreme ends of the long bone called? –
- epiphysis
- What is the membrane called that surrounds the outside of the diaphysis? –
- periosteum
What the the membrane called that lines the inside of the medullary cavity? –

endosteum
What covers the end of the epiphysis where a joint would be? –

articular cartilage
What type of cartilage is articular cartilage made of? –

hyaline cartilage
Where is red bone marrow found? –

in the epiphysis
Where is yellow marrow found? –

in the medullary cavity
What is the function of red bone marrow? –

to produce blood cells
What is the process called that produces blood cells –

Hematapoiesis
What type of bone cell build up the bone matrix? –

osteoblasts
What type of bone cell breaks down bone matrix? –

oestoclasts
What type of bone cell is found in the lacunae? –

osteocytes
What is hydroxyapatite? –

a hard crystal compound made up of calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate
What type of protein fiber is found in the matrix of bone? –

collagen
What 4 structures make up an osteon? –

lamallae, osteonic canal, Volksmann's canal, canaliculi
How is compact bone organized? –

into osteons
What does the osteonic canal hold? –

blood vessels
What type of canal connects the osteonic canal to blood vessels? –

Volksmann's Canal
What are the 2 ways in which bones can be formed? –

Bones can form from embryonic membrane or cartilage templates
What is the process called that turns cartilage into bone? –

ossification?
What do intramembranous bone develop from? –

embryonic membrane
What do endochondral bones develop form? –

cartilage
In an intramembranous bone, what develops first: spongy bone or compact bone? –

spongy bone
At what point in fetal development will ossification begin? –

6-7 weeks after conception
Which bones in the body are intramembranous bones? –

flat bones of the skull, mandibles, clavicles
What must happen the the cartilage template before osteocytes can begin to produce bone matrix? –

The chondrocytes will swell and die when a blood vessel forms in the center of the diaphysis.
How many bones is a baby born with? –

over 300
How many bones will an average adult have? –

206
What are the 2 types of bone growth? –

Interstitial growth and appositional growth
What type of bone growth occurs at the epiphyseal plate and increases the bone's length? –

interstitial growth
What type of bone growth occurs in the periosteum and increases the bone's circumference or width? –

Appositional growth
At what age will the epiphyseal plate fuse? –

Between 16-21 years old. Females stop growing before males
Where are the epiphyseal plates located on the bone? –

in the epiphysis
What 3 factors affect bone growth? –

sufficient calcium, phosphate and vitamin D; correct hormone balance; the aging process
How can you increase your bone density and strength? –

excercise regulary, make sure that you are getting the right amount of calcium, phosphate and vitamin D
What will decrease bone density and strength? –

pregnancy, illness, eating disorders, nutrient deficiency
What hormone is released from the pituitary gland? –

Growth hormone
What hormone is release from the thyroid? –

Calcitonin
What does calcitonin do for the body? –

metabolizes calcium and phosphate
What are the 4 hormones that must be balanced for correct bone density? –

growth hormone, calcitonin, testosterone, estrogen
How can you increase your bone density as an older adult? –

excercise frequently
What happens the blood vessels when the bone fractures? –

the blood vessles break and the the bone bleeds
What initiates fracture repair? –

the bleeding of the bone
What forms after the bone begins to bleed? –

a fracture hematoma
What is the purpose of the fracture hematoma? –
- it is a blood clot that stops the bleeding
- What forms on a fracture after the hematoma forms? –
- a callus
What is the function of a callus? –

specialized repair tissue that binds the broken ends of the bone together
Why would osteoclasts needs to break down or dissolve bone matrix? –

if the body is deficient in calcium, osteocytes will break down the bone matrix to release calcium for the muscle cells and nerve cells to use
What type of fracture causes the affected area to shatter into many small bony peices? –

Comminuted fracture
What type of fracture causes the shaft of the bone to break across the long axis? –

transverse fracture
What type of fracture is produced by a twisting stress and spreads along the length of the bone? –

Spiral fracture
What type of fracture occurs at the ankle and affects both bones of the leg? –

Pott's fracture
What type of fracture is a break in the distal portion of the radius and is often the result of reaching out to cushion a fall? –

Colle's fracture
What type of fracture on breaks one side of the shaft and but leaves the other side bent? This usually occurs in children who bones have not yet fully ossified. –

Greenstick fracture
What type of fracture occures between the ephiphysis and epiphyseal plate? –

epiphyseal fracture
What type of fracture has the ability to halt further longitudinal growth unless carefully treated? –

Epiphyseal fracture
What type of fracture can occur in vertebrae subjected to extreme stress such as falling on your butt? –

compression fracture
What type of fracture produces new and abnormal arrangements of bony elements? –

Displaced fractures
What type of fracture retains the normal alignment of the bones? –

nondisplaced fractures
What type of tissue is cartilage made up of? –

connective tissue
Is cartialge vascular or avascular? –

avascular
How does cartilage get its nutrients? –

it diffuses from the perichondrium or synovial fluid into the chondrocytes
What the the membrane called that surrounds cartilage? –

perichondrium
Why is cartilage so flexible? –

the cartilage fibers are embedded in a firm gel, the matrix contains lots of collagne fibers
Why is cartilage an excellent support system for a developing embryo? –

because it forms rapidly and retains its shape and rigidity
What are the 3 types of cartilage? –

Hyaline cartilage, Elastic cartilage and fibrocartilage
What is the most abundant type of cartilage in the body? –

hyaline cartilage
Where in the body would you find hyaline cartilage? –

covering the epiphysis of bones, costal cartilage (attaches the ribs to the sternum), rings of the trachea and in the skeleton of a developing fetus
What type of cell does cartilage form from? –

mesenchymal cells during embyonic development
Where in the body would you find elastic cartilage? –

ears, nose, epiglottis, Eustachian tubes
What type of protein fiber do all 3 types of cartilage have? –
- collagen
- What extra type of protein fiber allows Elastic cartilage to be extremely flexible? –
- elastic protein fibers
Where is fibrocartilage found? –

iintervertebral disks and the symphysis pubis
Whoch type of cartilage is the strongest and most rigid? –

fibrocartilage
What type of cartilage is the most flexible? –

elastic cartilage
What are the 2 types of cartilage growth? –

Interstitial growth and appositional growth
Where does appositional growth occur in cartilage? –

perichondrium
When will intersitial cartilage growth occur? –

during childhood and adolescence
When will appositional cartilage growth occur? –

throughout life
Whay type of hormone is most important in regulating blood- calcium levels? –

parathyroid hormone
What are the 2 hormones that regulate blood-calcium levels? –

parathyroid hormone and calcitonin
What are the 3 organs that aide in calcium regulation? –

kidneys, small intestine and bone
In a normal healthy adult, how will the kidneys help with calcium levels in the blood? –

all calcium that passes though the kidneys will be reabsorbed into the blood stream
How much of the body's calcium reserve is located in bones? –

98%
Where in the body is dietary calcium absorbed? –

small intestine
What happens during bone remodeling? –

calcium moves in or out of the blood
What type of osteoclast activity occurs during the breakdown of bone? –

osetoclasts release calcium back into the blood by dissolving bone matrix
What type of osteoblast activity occurs during the formation of bone? –

osteoblasts remove calcium from the blood and deposit it into the bone
What 4 things is calcium homeostasis essential for? –

bone formation and repair, blood clotting, nerve conductivity and muscle contraction
What 3 things will the parathyroid do in repsonse to low calcium levels in the blood? –

stimulate osteoclasts, increase renal absorption of Ca, stimulate vitamin D synthesis
What is added to the lining of the small intestine epithelial cells to help increase calcium absorption? –

calcium binding protein
What organ serves as the greatest reservoir of calcium? –

bone
When is calcitonin produced? –

when blood- calcium levels are high
Layers of Integument
- Epidermis
- Dermis
Purposes of integument (8)
- Insulates
- Cushions
- Protects from mechanical, chemical and thermal damage
- Protects from bacterial invasion
- Prevents moisture loss
- Excretory
- Sense organ
- vitamin D synthesis
Epidermis cells (4)
- Keratinocytes -most abundant, tightly connected by desmosomes
- Melanocytes-coloring
- Langerhans (immunity)
- Merkel cells (sensory)
Layers of the epidermis
- Stratum basale (basal)-single row of cells immediately adjacent to the dermis-new growth (germanitivum)
- Stratum spinosum (spiny) several layers just above basal layer. Pre-keratin protein.
- Stratum granulosum (granular) thin layer of granules for waterproofing and keratin fibrils.
- Stratum Lucidium (clear) very thin translucent band of flattened dead keratinocytes. Not present in thin areas.
- Stratum corneum (horny layer) outermost 20-30 cell layers, most of the thickness, fully keratinized.
Layers of dermis
2 main
- Papillary-more superficial dermal region-composed of areolar connective tissue. irregular with papillae that connect it to the epidermis. Fingerprints. Abundant nutrients. Pain and touch receptors.
- Reticular layer-deepest skin layer. dense irregular connective tissue , very vascular, sweat and sebaceous glands, pressure receptors.
Pacinian corpuscles

Pressure receptors
Accessory organs of the skin
- Nails
- Hairs
Parts of the nail (6)
- Body-visible part
- Root-embedded in the skin
- Eponychium-cuticle
- Nail bed-extension of stratum basale beneath the nail
- Nail matrix-thickened part containing germinal cells
- Lunula-proximal region that is white
Hair Structures
- Follicle
- Arrector pili muscle
Cutaneous glands
- Sebaceous-oil
- Sweat-(suderiferous) Eccrine, Apocrine
Vitamin D Pathway (uncertain)
- UV
- Epidermis
- Calciferol
- Liver
- Skin
- Liver
- Kidney
Ugly eccentric commoners like shadowy late knights.
Melanin production and dispersal (4)
- Melanocytes produce vesicles of melanin
- Melanin disperses along actin fibers
- Endocytoses into keratinocytes
- Floats to the sunny side of keratinocytes
Gland types of the skin
- Sebaceous,
- suderiferous (eccrine, apocrine)
- Ceruminous
Sebaceous (5)
- Produce oily secretions
- hairs and skin, lubrication
- Simple, branched alveolar
- Stimulated by androgens
- Seborrhea=cradle cap
Sudiferous glands
- Apocrine-
- armpits, mammary,groin
- Sweat plus oils
- Odor from bacterial breakdown
- Communication
- Eccrine/maricrine
- Watery
- over most of body
- Usually assoc with hair
Hair
- Pili
- Dead, Keratinized cells
- Shaft-keratinization complete
- Root-still becoming keratinized
- Pigmented by melanin
- Arrector pili-ssensory, goose bumps
Skin cancers
- Basal cell
- Squamous cell
- Malignant Melanoma
Basal cell carcinoma
- least malignant
- slow growing
- Surgical removal usually successful
- dome with crater in center.
Squamous cell
- Located in Stratum Spinosum
- Scaly, reddened bump
- Grows quickly
- Chance for cure is good
Malignant Melanoma
- A-Asymmetric
- B-Border irregular
- C-Color-multi
- D-Diameter-6mm
- E-Elevation
- Very rapid and deadly
Burns-type, signs

1st degree-epidermis only-hot,red, painful-heals without complication-sunburn. Heals within a few days

2nd degree-Upper dermis. Blistering from separation of epith. and dermis. Heals within a few weeks

1st and 2nd are also partial-thickness

3rd degree-full thickness-throough dermis, not painful initially, grey-white, cherry red or black. Loss of water very dangerous, infection. Grafting can help regenerate skin. Can lead to loss of function due to lack of elasticity in scar tissue.
Critical burns
- Over 25% 2nd degree
- 10% 3rd degree
- 3rd degree hands, feet or face.
Burns to face could include respiratory involvement. Limitation in joints also troublesome.
Rule of Nines
- Head 9%
- Trunk 18 front 18 back
- Arms 9 left 9 right
- Legs 18 left 18 right
- Perineal 1%

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AP Exam 2 Joints Skeleton Integument

Description

joints, jjoints skeleton

Updated

2013-03-11T00:41:20Z

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