Bio Exam 2 flash cards.txt

• The cell membrane, mad up of phospholipids
• Hydrophyllic and hydrophobic
• Fluid movement

a measure of disorder

• Passive movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration.
• Passive process

One that has a higher concentration of osmotically active particles that is present inside the cell.

Concentration of osmotically active particles equal on both sides of the membrane

One that has lower concentration of osmotically active particles than is present inside the cell.

The piping system of the cell

• Passive movement of molecules from region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration through membrane channels
• Channels are often selective

The active movement of molecules from a region of low concentration to a region of higher concentration.

• Pumps 3 Na + ions out of the cell
• Pumps 2 K+ ions into the cell
• Causes the inside of the cell to become - charged
• Breaks down ATP to make ion movement possible

• Phagocytosis
• Pinocytosis
• Receptor mediated Endocytosis

"food" or particle absorption or "eating"

• Absorption of fluid
• Pulls fluid in

Receptors located on the surface of cells. They bond with other molecules allowing the molecule to pass the cel membrane

Reactants have more energy than the products

Reactants have less energy than the products

Lower activation energy this speeding cellular reactions

Organic molecule that associate with enzymes and allow them to catalyze reactions

Inorganic groups that associate with enzymes and allow them to catalyze reactions. They are often metal atoms

• Competitive:
• Compete with the substrate for the same active site. Inhibit enzyme activity.
• Non-Competitive:
• Bind to alternate site and inhibit enzyme activity

• NAD+
• NADH

• Final products of 2 Pyruvic acids
• Located in the Cytoplasm
• Energy yield 2 ATP's, 2 NADH and H+
• Does not require any O2

• Lactic acid Fermentation
• Alcohol fermentation

• To regenerate oxidized NAD needed for step 6 of glycolysis
• If glycolysis were to stop at step 6 the ATP generating system (7 and 10) would not take place.

• Happens in the mitochondria
• Generates 4 ATP

• Ocular
• Objective
• Condenser

• Location of genetic material
• Surrounded by double membrane with pored that regulate exit and entry
• Genetic material in form of chromatin in non dividing cells
• Contains DNA

• DNA remains within the nucleus then genes are copied into mRNA with in the nucleus.
• mRNA moved to nucleus where it attaches to ribosomes and provides the information needed to make proteins
• The mRNA travel into the Ribosomes (Cytoplasm via nuclear pore) where protein is synthesized.
• The ribosome attached to the ER wall and the protein is released into the ER where a carb is attached.
• After traveling through the ER the protein is taken to the Gogli where the carb is changed.
• After Gogli the protein is released to travel to its end location, cytoplasmic, membrane, secreted

Ribosomes attached to ER membrane - site of synthesis of membrane - bound and secreted proteins

Lipid synthesis and drug detoxification

• Cytoplasmic
• Membrane
• Receptors
• secreted
• Exported

Carb (sugar) attaches

• Signal recognition particule (signal sequence)
• Found in the first 20aa’s of a protein
• Tells the protein where to go

• Neutrophils
• Macrophages

Eat or absorb bacteria

• Involved in intracellular digestion
• Absorbs food and old and damaged organelles

• Absorb water (increase cell size)
• May store chemicals, wastes, pigments, toxins for defense.

• Site of cellular respiration (ATP synthesis)
• Double membrane (2 chambers)
• Inner (matrix)
• Intermembrane space
• Contains a small number of genes

• Site of light reactions of photosynthesis (thylakoids)
• Contains small number of genes (100)

• When one cell lives another cell and they both derive some benefit from the relationship
• Cell living within a cell
• Organelles

• Provides structural support
• Involved in cell movement
• Involves in maintaining the shape of the cell (nerve cell)
• Made up of microfilaments

• Solid rods composed of actin, involved in movement and in allowing cells to change shape.
• Classified by the diameter

• Subunit (thinest)
• Fibrous subunit
• Tubulin subunit (thickest)
• What are Cilia?
• Short numerous, allows movement
• Protists and cells of the respiratory tract

• Longer, less numerous (sperm)
• Made up of a cytoskeleton

Dynein arms

Little arms between the Microtubules

• Tight Junctions
• Anchoring junctions
• Communicating junctions

• Bind cells together in leakproof sheets
• Found in the lining of the GI tract
• Prevents between cells

• Join cells to adjacent cells or to extracellular matrix, still allow passage of materials
• Ways to join adjacent cells together
• Found in the heart

Allow water and other small molecules to pass between adjacent cells.

• Fluid mosaic model (lipid bilayer with embedded membrane proteins
• Negatively charged (hydrophyllic) toward the inside next to eachother
• Uncharged (Hydrophobic)

Molecules tend to move from a region where they are in high concentration to a region where they are in low concentration

• membranes and cell interactions
• cellular respiration

• The first step in cell respiration
• Glycolysis breaks down glucose and makes Pyruvate with the production of 2 ATP

• Plays a role in the transfer of elections
• NAD acts as a reducing agent
• NADH (high energy for of NAD) contributes to oxidation in cell processes like glycolysis to help with oxidation of glucose

• The high energy for of NAD
• After the Glucose molecule has given NAD 2 electrons for transport it becomes NADH

The enzyme Hexokinase phospharylates adds a phosphate group to the glucose in the cells cytoplasm. IN the process, a phosphate group ATP is transferred to the glucose producing glucose 6 phosphate.

The enzyme Phosphoglucoisomerase converts glucose 6 phosphate into its isomer fructose 6-phosophate.

The enzyme phosphofructokinase uses another ATP molecule to transfer a phosphate group to fructose 6 - phosphate to form fructose 1, 6 biphosphate.

The enzyme aldolase splits fructose 1, 6 biphosphate into two sugars that are isomers of each other. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde phosphate.

The enzyme trios phosphate isomerase rapidly inter-converts the molecules dihydroxyacetine phosphate and glyceraldeyde phosphate. Glyceraldehyde phosphate is removed as soon as it is formed to be used in the next step of glycolysis

The Enzyme trios phosphate dehydrogenase serves two functions in this step. Fist the enzyme transfers a H- from glyceraldehyde phosphate to the oxidizing agent NAD to form NADH. Next Triose adds a phosphate from the cytosol ti the oxidized glyceralehyde phosphate to from 1, 3 0 biphosphoglycerate. This occurs for both molecules of glyceraldehyde phosphate products in step 5.

The enzyme Phosphoglycerokinase transfers a P from 1. 3-biphosphoglycerate to a molecule of ADP to form ATP. This happens for each to 1, biphosphoglycerate. The process yields two 3-phophoglycerate molecules and two ATP molecules

The enzyme phosphoglyceromutase relocares the P from 3 - Phophoglycerate from the third carbon to the second carbon to form 2 - phosphoglycerate.

The enzyme enolase removes a molecule of water from 2-phosphoglycerate to form phosphoenopyruvic acid (PEP). This happens for each molecule of 2-phophoglycerate.

The enzyme Pyruvate kinase transfers a P from PEP and ADP to form pyretic acid and ATP. This happens for each molecule of PEP. This reaction yields 2 molecules of pryuvic acid and 2 ATP molecules.

• 2 ATP
• 2 NADH
• 2 H20
• 3 Molecules of pyruvic acid

In the Mitochondrion of the cell

The pyretic acid are altered. Ech three carbon pyretic acid molecule undergoes conversion to acetyl-CoA. During the process, the pyruvic acid molecule is broken down by an enzyme, one canon atom is released in the form of carbon dioxide, and the remaining two carbons are combined with coenzyme A. This combination forms Acetyl-CoA. In the process, electrons and a hydrogen ion are transferred to NAD to for high energy NADH.

Acetyl-CoA now enters the Kreb cycle after being formed from pyruvate and Coenzyme A. Affter Acetyl-CoA inters the Kreb cycle by combining with a four - carbon acid called oxaloacetic acid.

The product after Pyruvic acid is broken down by coenzyme A to inter the Kreb Cycle

After Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetic acid it forms a six carbon sugar called citric acid.

The combination of Acetyl-CoA and Oxaloacetic acid, forming a six carbon acid called citric acid.

• Citric acid under goes a series of enzyme-catalyzed conversions.
• Throughout these conversions many high-energy elections are released to NAD.
• The NAD molecule also a quires a hydrogen ion and becomes NADH.
• In one of the conversions FAD serves as the electron acceptor, and it a quires two hydrogen ion to become FADH2.
• Through the conversions enough energy is released to synthesize a molecule of ATP
• Due to two Pyruvic acids interring the cycle originally, this process happens twice.

The two carbon atoms of the Acetyl-CoA are released, and each forms a carbon dioxide molecule. Thus for each Acetyl-CoA entering the cycle, two Co2 molecules are formed. Each cycle two Acetyl - CoA enter the Kreb cycle producing 4 CO2 molecules. When adding these four to the 2 already produced off the breakdown of pyruvic acid, we get 6 CO2 Molecules. These 6 CO2 molecules are given off as waist, they represent the 6 Carbons to the 6 Carbon sugar originally.

• 2 ATP
• 10 NADH
• 2 FADH2
• Both the NADH and the FADH2 will be used in the electron transport chain.

2?

Once for each pyruvate that was made at the end of glycolysis

• 2 ATP's
• 2 reduced NAD's x 2 = 4 ATP

6 ATP's

• 2 ATP's
• 6 reduced NAD's x 3 = 18 ATP's
• 2 reduced FAD's x 2 = 4 ATP's

36-38 ATP's

Oxygen

• Membrane protein complex
• Pumps sodium out of the cell while it pumps potassium in active transport.
• Goes from an area of low concentration to high
• pumps 3 Na+ out of the cell and 2 K+ into the cell with the help of ATP

• Nucleus (location of DNA)
• Nucleolus (genes for ribosomes)
• Ribosomes (involved in protein synthesis, composed of rRNA and protons)
• Mitochondria
• Lysosomes
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• The Golgi apparatus
• Plasma membrane (fluid mosaic model)

Phospholipid bilayer with embedded protein and cholesterol molecules. Many of the molecules are free to diffuse within the membrane. Carbohydrate molecules are attached to the outside surface.

• Passive (no cellular energy)
• Molecules move from higher to lower concentration.
• Entropy is the driving force.

The simple diffusion of water

• Passive
• Molecules move from an area of higher to lower concentration.
• Entropy is the driving force
• Movement is through special membrane channels

• Active (cellular energy needed, usually ATP)
• Molecules move from lower concentration to higher.

NaKATPase pump

Reactants have more energy than the products (energy given off to environment)

Reactants have less energy than the products (energy is absorbed from the environment)

Organic molecules that associate with enzymes and allow them to catalyze reactions

Inorganic groups that associate with enzymes and allow them to catalyze reactions. They are often metal.

Glucose is broken down in the presence of O2 to yield Co2 and H2O plus energy in the form of ATP.

Enery stored in the bond that holds the 3rd phosphate group in the molecule. When it is cleaved, the third phosphate is released along with energy. The resulting molecule with only 2 phosphate groups is ADP

• The first few steps cost the cell 2 ATP's.
• Reduce NAD (two)
• 4 ATP's are produced in the latter steps.
• No oxygen is required

Occurs within the cytoplasm (no mitochondria needed)

Two molecules of Pyruvates

• Fermentation reaction
• Each pyruvate is converted to Lactic Acid

• Where it feeds onto pre-ATP generating steps to glycolysis.
• A similar reaction occurs in organisms such as yeast except that Ethanol and carbon dioxide are the end products (along with oxidized NAD). This reaction is the basis of wine making.

• Each pyruvate is converted to Acetyl CoA
• With a total of 2 reduced NAD's is produced in the process

2C's from the Acetyl CoA and 4 pre-existing 4C molecule to generate a 6C molecule

• 2C's
• Released as 2 carbon dioxide molecules

• With every released is captured in the form of 1 ATP
• 3 reduced NAD's
• 1 FAD

In the inner mitochondrial membrane

NADH+H

Ultimately the electrons are passed to oxygen, which, with the addition of H+ produces water.

When the flow of elections are used to pump protons into the inter-membrane space, producing a proton gradient in the inter membrane space. When these protons flow passively back through the ATP synthetase channels, ATP is produced.

3 ATP's

2 ATP's

• 6 in glycolysis
• 6 in the formation of Acetyl CoA
• 24 in the Kreb cycle
• Total of 36-38

2

Oxygen