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Genetic
no two organisms are alike unless they are twins or clones
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Biodiversiy
diversity of life on our planet
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biodiversity is due to these three things
- genetic
- species level
- ecosystems
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what two things cause the genetic make up of biodiversity
- sexual reproduction
- mutations
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speciation
formation of a new species due to evolution
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evoltuion
adaptive changes in popuation over time
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two main causes of evoltuion
- genetic diversity
- natural selection
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mutation and sexual shuffling due to sexual reproduction
genetic diversity
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variation among individuals in a population with some more fit and leave more offspring
natural selections
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rates of speciation depend on
environmental conditions and available resources
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ecosystems
diff types of communities of organisms
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intraspecific
variation within a species
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variation in species five differences amongst them
- age
- season
- position in society
- sexual dimorphism
- non sex associated variation
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variation among species
interspecific variation
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convergent evoltuion
organisms are similar due to living in similar environments develop analogous structures
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similar structures to other organisms but not related
analogous
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three examples of convergent evolution
- life in water-streamlined body reduce drag ex dolphins, squid, fish
- life in air-animals evolved the ability to fly ex bat, dragon fly
- life in desert-plant groups store water in tissue ex cactus
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different pressures causes closely related species to evolve over time wjere homologous structures have diff functions or specialized diff
homologous structures
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the science of classification
taxonomy
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three things taxonomy uses in classifying
- description
- naming
- assignment of organisms to more inclusive groups
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Systematics
study of relations among organisms
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major goal of systematics and taxonomy
find the two out of three organisms that are more closely related to each other than the other
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phylogeny
evolutionary history of a species or group of species
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rely on enormous amounts of info and researchers personal experience with the species
evolutionary systematics
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phylogenetic systematics another name
cladistics
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uses only shared derived characters to assess relations
cladistics
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what 4 does cladistics use to distinguish between homology and anaology
- fossil record
- morphology
- biochem
- dna tools
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species
group of organisms that can interbreed
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genus
group of species related by common descent and share certain derived features
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higher catergories of the hierarchal system of classification contain a greater number of species and have broader definitions
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taxon
taxonomic group at any level
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binomial name
species name and specific epithet
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every species of organism has one and only one specific name, this is governed by
international codes of nomenclature
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taxonomic keys
dichotomous keys
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contains useful into to help identify similar kinds of organisms
dichotomous key
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each statement of a dichotomous key
lead
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pair of leads that are contrasting descriptions of certain characteristics
couplet
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leads in a couplet that both ask questions about the same characters
parallel
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set of species containing a common ancestor and all of its descendants
monophyletic
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set of species containing an ancestral species with some but not all of its descendants
paraphyletic group
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a set of species descended from more than one common ancestor
polypheletic group
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diagram in which each line represents a lineage and the various lineages join to make larger clades
cladogram
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things we might look at in an organism
characters
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the different forms that a character can take
character states
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suring the coourse of evolution characters undergo
character state transformations
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the character state transformations go from ancestral _____ to derived ____
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synapomorphy
shared derived character state shared by two taxa in three taxa comparrison
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used to define monophyletic groups
synapomorphy
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symplesiomorphy
ancestral character state shared by two taxa in a three taxon statement
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the appearance of the formaerly ancestral state becomes a new derived state
character reversal
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derived character state that occurs in only one of the three taxa being compared
autamorphy
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derived charcter states that evolve more than once independantly in diff branches of lineage
homplasy
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three requirements for comparing taxa
- taxa that are to be classified ust be determined
- classifications are founded on diff in features among diff taxa
- once characters are identified diff character states must be decided on
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parsimony
the tree with the fewest # of evolutionary events
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polarity in taxonomy indicated
which organisms are apomorphic or plesiomorphic
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the entire taxa being studied
ingroup
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any taxon that shares recent common ancestry with the in group but would be considered the sister group of the in group
out group
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long term interactions between organisms
symbiosis
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three classifications between the interactions of species
- effects of the interaction on the species involved
- physical closeness o the interacting species
- interactions that do not maintain long term physical contact
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short term and one organism benefits at the expense of another (2)
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resources needed by one species are als used by another species adverseley affecting growth , survival, and reproduction
competition
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three types of symbiosis in which long term interactions occur
- commensalism
- mutualism
- parasitism
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benefits one member while the other is uneffected
commensalism
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benefits of commensalism 4
- shelter
- food
- transport
- support
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both organisms gain one or more advantages
mutalism
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one symbiont gains food and other resources at the expense of another
parasitism
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biotic adaptations 2
- antiherbavore
- antipredator
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due to the evolving of plant defenses how does this effect the plant 2
- defenses limit the number of species that can survive on eating that plant
- increasing specialization in animals which increases diversity of animals
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2 ways an animal and plant protects itself from being eaten
- chemical defense
- physical defense
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chemical defense function for plants
act as a potent insect repellent
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some plants have made their leaves less nutritious for plants while insects have
evolved ways of overcoming the chemical defenses of certain plants
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2 waysinsects overcome the chemical defenses of the plant
- detoxifying the toxic compounds
- storing in tissue which will not cause them to be poisoned
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warning coloration
stored toxins of a plant found in the fly used as the insects own defense
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how a plant uses physical defense to not be eaten
the outside of the plant have for example spines that prevent the animal from eating it
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how cactus use physical defense and why
contain spines that protect the plant from being eaten while protecting their valuable water reserves
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mimic an animal that is harmful but the mimicing animal isnt
batesian
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a common pattern among species that are hamrful
mullerian
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camoflague
hiding by mtaching the color of a background or looking like something of no interest to the predator
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two types of camoflague
- disruptive
- counter shading
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disruptive coloration
color patterns that tend to mess with the eye
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disruptive coloration ex
zebra
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counter shading
when the dorsal coloration is darker than the opposite side
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frightening spots tht resemble eyes on the wings of butterflies and moths
eye spots
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found on the tip of wings, helps the bird think it is attacking the moth's head
small eye spots
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red queen hypothesis
selective pressures for constant adaptation
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aposematic coloration
- animals that are brightly colored so they will not get messed with
- an underlying defense mechanism
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hardy weinberg theorem
mathematical formula to interrelate allele frequencies with gene frequencies in a population
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allele frequencies equation
p+q=1
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genotype frequencies equation
p^2+2pq+q^2=1
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if there are more than 2 alleles for a particular gene in a population the allele frequency equation looks like
p+q+r+....=1
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composition of alleles in a population
gene pool
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HW theorem only works if
no forces are operating to hange allele frequencies in a population over time
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HW equilibrium can only be maintained if these 5 occur
- large populations
- no migration (population stays isolated)
- no mutations (no change in gene pool)
- all genotypes are equal in success
- mating is random
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if assortive (random) mating occurs what will happen to genotype frequencies and allele frequencies
genotype frequencies will change over time while allele frequencies remain the same
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3 factors that change the allele frequencies
- natural select
- gene flow
- genetic drift
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only this helps adapt the population to its environment and is called the darwin force
nat select
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how does gene flow/migration affect genotype frequencies
populations may gain or lose alleles and diff pop become more similar
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help drive evolution but have little effect on gene pools or large populations
mutation
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found effect
a few individuals colonize an isolated island, small sample size the less gene pool will reflect the larger pop of orignal colonists
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chance events cause the frequencies of alleles in a small pop to drift randomly from one gen to the next
genetic drift
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genetic drift only effects whht size populations
those below ~100 indivuduals
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for HW = to occur all individuals in poplations must
equal in the ability to reproduce
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4 phyla of fungi kingdom
- chytridiomycota
- zygomycota
- basidiomycota
- ascomycota
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only fungi that has flagellated gametes and spores
chytrids
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alternation of gen with 2 steps equally dominant
sporic meiosis
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produces gametes by mitosis and will eventually fuse
gametophyte
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two stages of sporic meiosis
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haploid stage of sporic meiosis
hametophyte
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diploid stage of sporic meiosus
sporophyte
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produces haploid spores by meiosis which are released from the parent plant
sporophyte
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after they settle down they develop into the gametophyte. what is the stage of sporic meiosis is this
sporophyte stage
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can reproduce sexually and asexually
sporic meiosis
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produces haploid spores and produce
gametophytes
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produce asexual diploid spores to reproduce the parent
sporophyte
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female gametes of chytrids release this hormone that attracts male gametes
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responsible for the irish potato famine
phytophthora
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all cell walls of the fungi kingdom are made of
chitin
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cell walls are made of cellulose instead of chitin
oocymmocta
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dominated by diploid stage, gametes formed dicrectly by meiosis and fusion recovers diploid condition
gametic meiosis
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eggs that develop within female gametangium
oogonium
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male gametangium
antheridium
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sexual reproduction of zygotic meiosis is
dominated by haploid stage
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gametes in this stage are produced by mitosis and following fusion of the gamete into a zygote
zygotic meiosis
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2 evidence of endosymbiosis
- similar inner membrane functions and structures
- own circular DNA
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