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neuron
the basic nerve cell of the nervous system
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synapse
the gap at the connection between neurons, through which neurons chemically communicate with one another
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synaptic pruning
the elimination of neurons as the result of nonuse or lack of stimulation
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myelin
a fatty substance that helps insulate neurons and speeds the transmission of nerve impulses
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plasticity
the degree to which a developing structure or behavior is modifiable due to experience
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rythms
repetitive, cyclical patterns of behavior
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state
the degree of awareness an infant displays to both internal and external stimulation
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dendrite
a cluster of fibers that receive messages from other cells
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reflexes
unlearned, organized, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli
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encoding
the process by which info is initially recored in a form usable to memory
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norms
represent the average performance of a large sample of children of a given age
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autostimulation
brain stimulates itself
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automatization
the degree to which an activity requires attention
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storage
placement of material into memory
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retrieval
process by which material in memory storage is located, brought to awareness, and used
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infantile amnesia
the lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to 3 years of age
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explicit memory
memory that is conscious and can be recalled intentionally
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implicit memory
memories of which we are not consciously aware but that affect performance and behavior
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developmental quotient
an overall developmental score that relates to performance in four domains: motor skills, language use, adaptive behavior, and personal-social
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cross-modal transference
the ability to identify a stimulus that previously has been experienced through only one sense by using another sense
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Kwashiorkor
a disease in which a child's stomach, limbs, and face swell with water
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Marasmus
a disease in which infants stop growing
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Undernutrition
some deficiency in diet
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Malnutrition
the condition of having an improper amount and balance of nutrients
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Non-organic failure to thrive
a disorder in which infants stop growing due to a lack of stimulation and attention as the result of inadequate parenting
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Sound localization
pinpoint the direction from which a sound is emanating
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Semantics
the rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences.
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babbling
making speech-like but meaningless sounds
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Holophrases
one-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase, whose meaning depends on the particular context in which they are used
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Telegraphic speech
speech in which word not critical to the message are left out
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Language acquisition device (LAD)
a neural system of the brain hypothesized to permit understanding of language
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Infant directed speech
a type of speech directed toward infants; characterized by short, simple sentences
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Motherese
a style of speech that characterizes much of the verbal communication directed toward infants- formally known as moth erase, now known as infant-directed speech
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Nonverbal decoding
infants can interpret others facial and vocal expressions that carry emotional meaning
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perception
the sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli involving the sense organs and brain
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Schemes
organized patterns of functioning that adapt and change with mental development
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Assimilation
the process by which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking
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Accommodation
changes in existing ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli or events
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Goal-directed behavior
several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem
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Object permanence
the realization that people and objects exist even when they cannont be seen.
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Deferred imitation
a person who is no longer present is imitate later, children are able to pretend that they are driving a car, feeding a doll, cooking dinner long after they have witnessed such scenes in reality
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Nonverbal encoding
the nonverbal expression of emotion
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Stranger anxiety
the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person
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Separation anxiety
the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs
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Social referencing
the intentional search for information about others feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events
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Reciprocal socialization
a process in which infants behaviors invite further responses from parents and other caregivers, which in turn bring about further responses from the infants
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Personality
The sum total of the enduring characteristics that differentiate one individual from another
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Termperament
patterns of arousal and emotionality that are consistent and enduring characteristics of an individual
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Goodness of fit
The notion that development is dependent on the degree of match between children's temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised
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When greatest height and weight occur
In the first year of life
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Principles of growth and development
- Cephalocaudal principle
- Proximodistal principle
- Principle of hierarchical integration
- Principle of the independence of systems
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Cephalocaudal principle
the principle that growth follows a pattern that begins with the head and upper body parts and then proceeds down to the rest of the body
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Proximodistal principle
the principle that development proceeds from the center of the body outward
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principle of hierarchical integration
the principle that simple skills typically develop separately and independently but are later integrated into more complex skills
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Principle of the independence of systems
the principle that different body systems grow at different rates
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SIDS
Sudden infant death syndrome- a disorder in which seemingly healthy infants die in their sleep
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Reflexes: When they develop, why they exist, different forms
Table 4-3
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Motor development milestones
- 3.2 months: rolling over
- 3.3 months: grasping rattle
- 5.9 months: sitting without support
- 7.2 months: standing while holding on
- 8.2 months: grasping with thumb and finger
- 11.5 months: standing alone well
- 12.3 months: walking well
- 14.8 months: building tower of two cubes
- 16.6 months: walking up stairs
- 23.8 months: jumping in place
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Calorie consumption in infants
50 calories per lb of weight
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Eating patterns- breast milk vs. formula, introduction of solid foods
Breast milk- more early digested, sterile, warm, convenient, said to increase cognitive growth leading to high adult intelligence. Creates intimacy between mother and child.
Introducing solid food: 6 months, aren't needed till 9-12 months. Introduced one at a time. Cereal-strained fruits-veggies and other foods.
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Multimodal approach to perception
considers how info that is collected by various individual sensory systems is integrated and coordinated.
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Piaget's theory of development during infancy and toddlerhood
see lab
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Information processing approach
the model that seeks to identify the way that individuals take in, use, and store information
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Overextension and under extension of speech
- Under- the overly restrictive use of words; common among children just mastering spoken language
- Over- the overly broad use of words, overgeneralizing their meaning
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Learning theory approach to language
the theory that language acquisition follows the basic laws of reinforcement and conditioning
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When children can show empathy to others
24 months.
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Attachment theory
Bowlby's view- attachment is based primarily on infants needs for safety and security.
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Harlow's experiment
gave infant monkeys the choice of cuddling a wire monkey that provided food, or a soft cloth monkey that was warm but did not provide food.
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Situations in which children show preference for their mothers
stressful situations
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Mutual regulation model
the model in which infants and parents learn to communicate emotional states to one another and to respond appropriately
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Erikson's theory
- Theory psychosocial development:
- the theory that considers how individuals come to understand themselves and the meaning of others-and their own-behavior
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Dimensions of temperament
Activity level: proportion of active time periods to inactive time periods
Approach-withdrawl:The response to a new person or object, based on whether the child accepts the new situations or withdraws from it
Adaptability: How easily the child is able to adapt to changes in his or her environment
Quality of mood: The contrast of the amount of friendly, joyful, and pleasant behavior with unpleasant, unfriendly behavior
Attention span and persistence: The amount of time the child devotes to an activity and the effect of distraction on that activity
Distractibility: THe degree to which stimuli in the environment alter behavior
Rhythmicity (regularity): the regularity of basic functions such as hunger, excretion, sleep, and wakefulness
Intensity of reaction: the energy level or reaction of the child's response
Threshold of responsiveness: The intensity of stimulation needed to elicit a response
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Benefits of child care
children in low income households and those whose mothers are single may benefit from the educational social experiences in child care, as well as form the higher income produced by parental employment
solve problems better, pay greater attention to others, use language more effectively
play well with other children
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