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Skin
First line of defense; oily and acidic
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Major Histocompatibility complex
Group of genes that code for a protein and help the immune system identify foreign particles
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Cell mediated response
Big wbc macrophage eats invader, displays antigen, helper T-cell binds, releases interleukin which signals to create killer t-cells which inject toxins afterwards regulator t-cells end response, macrophage eats the rest of the bacteria
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interleukin
activating agent which signals killer T-cell replication
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Cytotoxic t-cells
Killer t-cells which bind to invaders and inject toxins
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B-cells
Secrete antibodies
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Antibody
Y-shaped protein which binds to antigens to inactivate them
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active and passive immunity
- Passive: Never exposed to pathogen
- Active: Exposed to pathogen
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Mucous membranes
Tissue layer that secretes mucus
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Macrophage
Big white blood cell that eats the invaders and displays a piece on its cell surface
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Helper T-cell
Binds to antigen and secrete interleukin
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Humoral response
B-cells make specific antibodies for diseases, divide into memory b-cells and plasma b-cells, Antibodies destroy antigens, phagocy clean up, memory b-cells remember them
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Memory b-cells
Sub group of b-cell which remembers invaders for next time. Provide quick immunity response.
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Immune system causes symptoms of illness thorugh
- Temperature to kill with heat
- Mucus to get the pathogens out
- Cough to get pathogens out
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Auto immune Diseases
When the immune system attacks itself
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Allergies
A hypersensitivity of the immune system; antigen attaches to certain allergen to cause a massive inflammatory response
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Vaccines
Prophylactic: Prevent diseases by giving whole (killed/mutated) or piece of antigen to get memory b-cells
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Antibiotics
Kill bacteria with protein synthesis but some form a resistance to it
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Histamine
Key substance that causes allergy responses
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The three lines of defense in your immune system
- 1.The cell mediated: Big wbc macrophage eats invader, displays antigen, helper T-cell binds, releases interleukin which signals to create killer t-cells which inject toxins afterwards regulator t-cells end response, macrophage eats the rest of the bacteria
- 2. The Humoral Response:B-cells make specific antibodies for diseases, divide into memory b-cells and plasma b-cells, Antibodies destroy antigens, phagocy clean up, memory b-cells remember them
- 3. Integumentary: Includes skin, antimicrobial proteins, Cilia, stomach acid and symbiotic bacteria in the intestines
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Transformation
The genetic alteration of a cell by insertion of foreign DNA, which could be used for curing diseases and building immunity by inserting specifically designed/harvested DNA into animal/human cells.
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Meiosis
- The process of making sex cells. The cell cycle is:
- Interphase, meiosis I (Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase), Meiosis II (Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase), Interpahse (Chromosomes begin as chromatin which is loose DNA, at the end of interphase DNA is replicated once)
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Oogenesis
- The formation of the egg cell
- Begins in ovary with formation of primary diploid cell call an oocyte
- Oocyte makes 4 haploid cells but three go unused as the best is selected to become the egg
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Spermatogenesis
- Process of creating sperm occurring in the testicles
- Primary diploid spermatocyte undergoes meiosis and makes 4 haploid sperm cells
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Dominant and recessive
- Where one trait (dominant) only needs one allele to be present and the other (recessive) needs both.
- Some can't be categorized like this because they are co-dominant like blue and green eyes. Or sex linked traits where it men only need one and women need both no matter what
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Darwin's natural selection:
Organisms produce more offspring than can survive, all organisms within a population have variations in their traits, the organisms with the variations best for the environment will survive and pass on their traits (survival of the fittest) This process continues until the entire species begins to evolve.
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Oncogenes and tumor suppressors
- Oncogenes are damaged genes which stimulate cell growth, causing a cancerous tumor
- Tumor suppressor genes suppress abnormal genes and act as brake pedals to make the cell commit apoptosis.
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Restriction enzymes
Cut DNA at very specific recognitions sequences
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Gel electrophoresis
Separate DNA fragments according to size
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Gel electrophoresis and restriction enzymes can be used for
Testing for cancer, testing for cancer risk genes or any other kind of specific gene
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Ecosystem
Groups of living organism that depend on each other and the environment for survival
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Abiotic
Non-living factors that influence the biotic components of an ecosystem
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Autotroph
Biotic component that creates its own food (producer)
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Decomposer
Biotic composers that break down and recycle organic material back into the environment
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Food chain
- A linked feeding series
- Producer->primary consumer->secondary consumer
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Producer
Lowest level of the food chain which creates its own food (plant)
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Habitat
Area in which organism live
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Niche
Role an organism plays in an ecosystem
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Biotic
Living components of an ecosystem
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Heterotroph
Biotic component that consumes other organisms for food
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Biomes
- Geographical/climatically similar areas
- Coniferous forest, tundra, Savannah desert
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Food web
Linked food chain, less linear.
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Consumer
A heterotroph such as an herbivore (primary consumer) or a carnivore (secondary consumer)
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Population
The group/number of a species in an area
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Trophic levels
Level in the food chain where an organism is found
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Community
A group of organisms/population of different species that occupy a particular area and interact with the environment around them
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Biotic potential
The potential growth of a species under perfect conditions
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J shaped curve
exponential growth when population size increases at constant rate because under ideal living conditions
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Limiting factor
A factor in an environment which controls a process, usually growth
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Nutrient cycle
How nutrients move from the environment to the organisms
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Exponential growth
A growth in which the rate is proportional to the increasing number.
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Carrying capacity
The most amount of organisms of a species which can survive over a long period of time in a given environment
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Overpopulation
Having more of a species than what can be sustained.
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DDT
A chlorinated organic insecticide that was used to control malaria carrying mosquitoes but make some resistant
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Mendel's laws
- Principle of dominance
- Principle of segregation
- Principle of independent assortment
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Mendel's principle of dominance
Out of 2 alleles the dominant is expressed with one allele and in the presence of a recessive allele will be the only one showing
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Mendel's principle of segregation
A gamete can only carry dominant or recessive traits and there are no blending of mendelian factors.
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Principle of independent assortment
The tow characters are assorting in independent ways.
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Complete dominance
Always shown when present
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Multiple alleles
Multiple alleles/traits to be inheirited
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Bloody type
The kinds of feelers the blood cells have/accept
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Incomplete dominance
Blended alleles
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Pleiotropic
Gene causes multiple effects
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Sex linked traits
Transferred on the x chromosome
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Codominance
Both alleles show
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Polygenic
Multiple genes control traits
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Cancer
Irregularly shaped unstoppably dividing cells
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Cell cycle
Growth, DNA replication, Organelles made, interphase, mitosis, proteins regulate at checkpoint stages inbetween
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Germline
Inherited mutation
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Somatic
From the body and somatic cells
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Proto-oncogenes
Normal cell growth regulating genes
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p53
Protein that halts cell division
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Anueploid
Abnormal number of chromosomes
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Metastasis
Invasion/spread of cancer
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Benign
Not cancerous, but can become cancerous
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Malignant
Spreading, invading cancer
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Cause of mutations
Environment, diet, smoking etc. Inherited mutation from parents, viruses, chemicals, radiation, hormones
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Treatments of cancer
Radiation therapy. Use a biopsy to test for it
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Li Fraumeni Syndrome
Inherited cancer
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DNA Sequence
Writing out of DNA
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Two-hit hypothesis
Cancer=accumulated mutation result, especially from 2 parent chromosomes
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Evidence for evolution
Fossils of altered versions of animals, differences in the same species based on location, embryo development, molecules showing the past life
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Darwin
Created theory of evolution
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Adaptions
Species evolve to survive in their environment
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Coevolution
Change of biological population triggered by the change of a related population
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Divergent evolution
Separate populations of species evolve seperately
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Convergent evolution
Organisms in the same environment evolve similar adaptations
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Biodiversity
Sum total of all living organisms on the planet
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Genetic drift
Change in gene pool
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Gene pool
Combination of all alleles in a population
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Gene frequency
How often an allele is seen in a gene pool
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Carrier
Can give trait to offspring but doesn't express it
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Chromatid
Segment of chromosomes in meiosis
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Heterozygous
Has dominant and recessive alleles
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Homozygous
Has either two dominant or two recessive alleles
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Trisomy
Extra (pair) of chromosomes
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Chromosomes
A packed coil of genes
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Centromere
Center of a cell
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Diploid
Containing two sets of chromosomes
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Homologous chromosomes
Both type of chromosomes
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Phenotype
Physical traits expressed
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Sickle cell anemia
Inherited blood disease with crescent shaped blood cells
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Translocation
Switch of parts of a chromosome
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Genes
Traits/genetic makeup
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Crossing over
Process of translocation
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Genotype
Set of genes in an organism
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Haploid
Cell or organism having half of the number of chromosomes in somatic cells
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Population genetics
Study of genetic influences on the components of cause and effect in the somatic characteristics of populations
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E. Coli
A type of bacteria
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Transgenic
Organism with genes from another organism put into it genome.
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b-gal
A sugar splitting enzyme
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Ampicillin
Penicillin derivative with broad spectrum activity
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X-gal
is used to detect for the bacterium B-galactosidase
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pBLU
Bacterial plasmid containing genes for ampicillin resistance
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Competent
Cells able to take up genetic material
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heat shock
Put in hot water
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LB
Luria-Bertani broth (cell agar)
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