-
A gene that shows a strong effect in either the homozygous or heterozygous condition.
Dominant Gene
-
Fraternal (non-identical) twins derived from two eggs
Dizygotic twins
-
A double-stranded molecule that is part of the chromosomes
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
-
Biological catalysts that regulate chemical reactions in the body.
Enzymes
-
A field that deals with changes in gene expression without modification of the DNA sequence.
Epigenetics
-
A change over generations in the frequencies of various genes in a population.
Evolution
-
Understanding in terms of the evolutionary history of a structure or behavior.
Evolutionary Explanation
-
A field that deals with how behaviors evolved
Evolutionary Psychology
-
The spreading of genes; number of copies of one's genes that ENDURE in later generations.
Fitness
-
Understanding WHY a structure or behavior evolved as it did.
Functional Explanation
-
Units of heredity that maintain their structural identity from one generation to another.
Genes
-
Philosophical question as to WHY & HOW brain activity becomes conscious.
Hard Problem
-
Estimate of the degree to which variation in a characteristic depends on genetic variations in a given population.
Heritability
-
Having 2 unlike genes for a given trait
Heterozygous
-
Having 2 identical genes for a given characteristic
Homozygous
-
Selection for a gene that benefits the individual's relatives
Kin Selection
-
A theory of evolution through the inheritance of ACQUIRED characteristics
Lamarckian Evolution
-
Question about the relationship between mental experience and brain activity
Mind-Brain Problem
-
Twins derived from one egg
Monozygotic Twins
-
Understanding in terms how a structure or behavior develops
Ontogenetic Explanation
-
A genetic inability to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
-
Understanding in terms of the activity of the brain and other organs
Physiological Explanation
-
One that shows effects ONLY in the homozygous condition
Recessive Gene
-
Helping others who may be helpful in return
Reciprocal Altruism
-
A single-strand chemical
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
-
Watching for danger and warning others
Sentinel Behavior
-
Gene that exerts its effects primarly in one sex because of activation by androgens or estrogens, although members of both sexes may have the gene.
Sex-Limited Gene
-
Gene on either the X or Y Chromosome
Sex-Linked Gene
-
A time when the membrane is unable to produce an action potential.
Absolute Refractory Period
-
Messages sent by axons
~0 > Positive Number
Action Potentials
-
A protein-mediated process that expends energy to enable a molecule to cross a membrane
Active Transport
-
An axon that brings info INTO a structure
Afferent Axon
-
Principle that the amplitude and velocity of an action potential are independent of the stimulus that initiated it
All or None Law
-
Star-Shaped glia that synchronize the activity of the axons
Astrocytes
-
Thin fiber of constant diameter; the neuron's INFO sender
Axon
-
A swelling where the axon exits the cell body (soma)
Axon Hillock
-
Mechanism that excludes most chemicals from the brain
Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)
-
Structure containing the nucleus, ribosomes, and mitochondria
Cell body (soma)
-
Difference in distribution of ions across the neuron's membrane.
Concentration Gradient
-
Short outgrowths that increase the surface area available for synapses
Dendritic Spines
-
To reduce polarization toward zero across a membrane
Depolarize (depolarization)
-
Neuron that carries info AWAY from a structure (exits)
Efferent Axon
-
Differnece in electrical charges between the inside and outside of the cell
Electrical Gradient
-
Network of thin tubes that transport newly synthesized proteins to other locations
Endoplasmic Reticulum
-
Type of cell in the nervous system that, in contrast to neurons, does not conduct impulses over long distances.
Glia
-
-
A membrane potential that varies in magnitude in proportion to the intensity of the stimulus
Graded Potential
-
Increased polarization across a membrane
Hyperpolarization
-
Neuron whose axons and dendrites are all confined WITHIN a given structure
Interneuron
-
Neuron whose axons and dendrites are all confined within a given structure (another word for interneuron)
Intrinsic Neuron
-
Drugs that attach to the sodium channels of the membrane, stopping action potentials
Local Anesthetics
-
Neurons without an axon
Local Neurons
-
Structure that separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment
Membrane
-
Cells that remove waste material and other microorganisms from the nervous system
Microglia
-
Structure that performs metabolic activities
Mitochondrion
-
Neuron that receives excitation from other neurons and conducts impulses to a muscle
~Talks to muscles
Motor Neuron
-
An insulating material composed of fats and proteins
Myelin
-
Insulating material that covers vertebrate axon
Myelin Sheath
-
*ON EXAM*
What is the purpose of the myelin sheath?
Increases Conduction of neural impulse
-
Axons covered with myelin sheaths
Myelinated Axons
-
Cells that receive info & transmit it to other cells
Neurons
-
Interruptions in the myelin sheath of the vertebrate axons
Nodes of Ranvier
-
Structure that contains the chromosomes
Nucleus
-
Glia cells that build myelin sheaths
~Brain & Spinal Chord
Oligodendrocytes
-
(end bulb) point where an axon releases chemicals
Presynaptic Terminal
-
Transmission of an action potential down an axon
Propagation of the action potential
-
Cells that guide the migration of neurons and the growth of axons and dendrites during embryological developement
Radial Glia
-
Time when the cell RESISTS the production of further action potentials
Refractory period
-
Time after the absolute refractory period that requires a stronger stimulus to initiate an action potential
Relative Refractory Period
-
Sites for cell synthesization of new protein molecules
Ribosomes
-
The jumping of action potentials from node to node
Saltatory Conduction
-
Glia cells that build myelin sheath (Periphery Nervous System)
Schwann Cells
-
Ability of some chemicals to pass more freely than others thru a membrane
Selectively permeability
-
Neuron that is highly sensitive to a specific type of stimulation
~get info fr the brain
Sensory Neuron
-
Mechanism that actively transports sodium ions out of the cell while drawing in 2 potassium ions
Sodium-Potassium Pump
-
A B1 Vitamin necessary to use Glucose
Thiamine
-
Min. amount of membrane depolarization necessary to trigger an action potential
Threshold of excitation
-
Membrane channel whose permeability to sodium or some other ion depends on the voltage difference across the membrane
Voltage-gated channel
-
The resting potential of a neuron is
70 milliVolts
-
-
This syndrome is marked by severe memory impairment from alcohol.
Korsakoff's Syndrome
-
He demonstrated that communication between one neuron and the next differs from communication along a single axon.
Charles Sherrington
-
Sherrington concluded thata some process was slowing conduction through the reflex and he inferred that the delay must occur where one neuron _________ with another.
communicates
-
What evidence led Sherrington to conclude that transmission at a synapse is different from transmission along an axon?
Sherrington found that the VELOCITY of conduction thru a reflex arc was significantly slower than the velocity of an action potential along an axon. Some delay must occur at the junction btw one neuron and the next.
-
Acids containing an AMINE group (NH2)
amino acids
-
Compounds that contain a catechol and an amine group
Catecholamines
-
a protein that is reabsorbed at the presynaptic terminal
Dopamine transporter
-
Graded depolarization (EPSP)
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)
-
A release of NT from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft that separates one neuron from another
Exocytosis
-
A protein coupled to guanosine triphosphate (GTP, an energy storing molecule
G Protein
-
A direct contact of one neuron with another, enabling electrical transmission
Gap Junction
-
One of the categories of NT, including nitric oxide & others
Gases
-
temporary hyperpolarization of a membrane (IPSP)
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential
-
The effect of NT depends on it's receptor on postsynaptic cells. There are 2 Types:
- Ionotropic
- Ligand-Gated Channels
-
Synaptic effects that depend on the rapid opening of some kind of gate in the membrane.
Ionotropic effects
-
Channel that opens when a NT attaches
Ligand-Gated Channels
-
Enzyme that converts catecholamines & serotonin into synaptically inactive forms
MAO (Monoamine Oxidase)
-
Hormone that influences both circadian & circannual rhythms
Melatonin
-
A sequence of metabolic reactions that produce slow and long-lasting effects at a synapse
Metabotropic effect
-
Chemicals formed by a change in certain amino acids
Monoamines
-
A kind of neuron that releases huge amounts of GABA all at once, producing widespread inhibition
Neurogliaform cell
-
Chain of Amino acids
Neuropeptides
-
Chemicals released by neurons that affect other neurons
Neurotransmitters (NT)
-
A gas released by many small local neurons
Nitric Oxide (NO)
-
Chemical contained in Marijuana leaves
- Delta9-THC
- Tetrahydrocannabinol
-
Chemical that binds to cannabinoid receptors
-
A chemical similar to an amino acid, except that it includes an N(CH3)3 group instead of an NH2 group
Acetylcholine
-
A chemical released from the anterior pituitary gland, which enhances metabolic activity and elevates blood levels of sugar
- ACTH
- Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
-
A drug that mimics or increases the effects of a NT
Agonist
-
-
Alcoholism; the habitual use of alcohol despite medical/social harm
Alcohol dependence
-
Adrenal hormone that cause the body to retain salt
Aldosterone
-
A drug that blocks reuptake of dopamine and other NT
Amphetamine
-
Chemicals related to D9 & THC
Cannabinoids
-
a drug that blocks reuptate of dopamine
Cocaine
-
enzyme that breaks down excess dopamine into inactive chemicals that cannot stimulate the dopamine receptors
- COMT
- catechol-o-methyltransferase
-
Portion of the pituitary gland, composed of glandular tissue
Anterior Pituitary
-
An endocrine gland attached to the base of the hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
-
Portion of the pituitary gland, which releases hormones synthesized by the hypothalamus
Posterior Pituitary
-
Neuron that receives the transmission from another neuron
Postsynaptic Neuron
-
Neuron that delivers transmission to another neuron
Presynaptic Neuron
-
Hormones composed of long chains of amino acids
Protein hormones
-
A category of chemicals including ADENOSINE and several of its derivatives
Purines
-
A circuit from sensory neuron to muscle response
Reflex arc
-
Automatic muscular responses to stimuli
Reflexes
-
Hormone released by the hypothalamus that flows thru the blood to the anterior pituitary
Releasing hormone
-
Reabsorption of a NT by the presynaptic terminal
Reuptake
-
A chemical that, when activated by a NT, initiates communication to many areas within the neuron
Second Messenger
-
Neuron that is highly sensitive to a specific type of stimulation
Sensory Neuron
-
A periodic production of action potentials even without a synaptic input
~summation over space
Spatial Summation
-
drugs that increase excitement, alertness, and activity while elevating mood and decreasing fatigue
Stimulant drugs
-
A NT released by pain axons in the spinal cord
Substance P
-
a specialized gap as a point of communication btw two neurons
Synapse
-
A cumulative effect of repeated stimuli within a brief time
~Period over time, stimulations
Temporal Summation
-
Min. amount of membrane depolarization necessary to trigger an action potential
Threshold of Excitation
-
Ion channel that opens temporarily when a NT binds to it
Transmitter-Gated Channel
-
Special membrane protein where reuptake occurs in the NT
Transporter
-
Alcohol Abuse with gradual onset; weak genetic predisposition
Type 1 (A) Alcoholism
-
Alcohol abuse with a rapid onset and strong genetic basis
Type 2 (B) Alcoholism
-
Tiny nearly sperical packets filled with NT molecules
Vesicles
-
Membrane channel whose permeability to sodium (or some other ion) depends on the v voltage difference across the membrane
Voltage gated Channel
-
The space between post/presynaptic terminal is called________ ________.
Synaptic Cleft
-
-
-
Below are the Anatomy of the ______ _____
~Ventral
~Dorsal
~Anterior
~Posterior
~Medial
~Lateral
Nervous System
-
Towards the stomach (Nervous System)
Ventral
-
Towards the back (Nervous System)
Dorsal
-
Above (Nervous System)
Anterior
-
Below (Nervous System)
Posterior
-
Middle (Nervous System)
Medial
-
Sides (Nervous System)
Lateral
-
sensory info (NS)
Dorsal Root
-
Motor Info (NS)
Ventral Root
-
the brain and the spinal chord
Central Nervous System
-
*On Exam*
The Brain has 3 Parts:
- Hindbrain
- Midbrain
- Forebrain
-
Hindbrain is the Posterior part that includes:
-
Midbrain is the Medial part that includes:
- tectum
- superior colliculus
- inferior colliculus
- substantia nigra
-
Forebrain has 2 cerebral hemispheres (L&R) that includes sensory info in:
-
Sends axons to much of the forebrain, modifying the brain's readiness to respond to stimuli
Raphe System
-
A large hindbrain structure with many deep folds
Cerebellum
-
Has descending and ascending portions
Reticular Formation
-
Lies anterior and ventral to the medulla, it contains nuclei for several cranial nerves.
Pons
-
Just above the spinal cord, and can be regarded as an enlarged extension of the spinal cord to the skull.
Medulla
-
Control sensations from the head, muscle movements in the head, and parasympathetic output to the organs.
Cranial Nerves
-
A network of nerves that prepare organs for vigorous activity, consists of chains of ganglia just to the left and right of the spinal cord's central regions.
~Excited "Fight/Flight"
Smpathetic NS
-
Facilitates vegetative, nonemergency responses.
~relaxed, calm
Parasympathetic NS
-
Sensory nerves enter which sides of the spinal cord? Dorsal or Ventral?
Dorsal
-
Forms a border around the brainstem
Limbic System
-
endocrine (Hormone-producing) gland attached to the base of the hypothalamus by a stalk that contains neurons, blood vessels, and connective tissue.
Pituitary Gland
-
A group of subcortical structures lateral to the thalamus, include trhee major structures:
~Caudate Nucleus
~Putamen
Globus Pallidus
Basal Ganglia
-
Receives input from the hypothalamus and basal ganglia and sends axons that release Acetylcholine to widespread areas in the cerebral cortex
Nucleus Basalis
-
A large structure between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex, mostly toward the posterior of the forebrain
Hippocampus
-
posterior (Caudal) end of the cortex. The main target for VISUAL info
Occipital Lobe
-
Lateral portion of each hemisphere, near the temples. Primary cortical target for AUDITORY information.
Temporal Lobe
-
This disease has no readiness to movement bc SUBSTANTIA NIGRA is not working properly.
Parkinsons Disease
-
The brain is divided in 4 Lobes:
- Occipital - back - visual
- Temporal - side - hearing
- Parietal - in btw - sensory/motor
- Frontal - front - memory
-
The brain has NO pain receptors, only ______ do.
Meninges
-
Empty spaces in brain
Ventricles
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