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General form of Esters
- O
- R-C-OR O is double bonded
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How do you name Esters
-yl and -anoate endings
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Formate general structure
R-O-CH=O
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Esterfication: acid
R-(C=O)-OH + OH-R <----->
H-OH + R-(C=O)-OR + H2O
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Hydrolysis of an ester
- acid
- R-(C=O)-OR + H2O <------> R-(C=O)-OH + R-OH
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Hydrolysis of an anhydride
R-(C=O)-O-(C=O)-R + H2O <----> R-(C=O)-OH (2)
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NaOH
R-(C=O)-OR + H2O ----->
R-(C=O)-ONa + H2O + R-OH
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Saponification
Making soap from a salt of a fatty acid
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NaOH
R-(C=O)-OR + H20 ----->
R-(C=O)- ONa + R-OH + H2O
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Lipids are polar or non polar?
nonpolar
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Hydrolyzable lipids
able to be broken apart with water have ester groups
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non hydrolyzable do not have what group?
ester
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what lipids are hydrolyzable?
Triglycerides and glrycerol (phospholipids)
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What lipids are Non-hydrolyzable?
Steroids
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Triglycerides do or do not have branches
no branches
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acid
triglyceride + H20 --->
H20 + glycerol + (3) HO-(C=O)-R
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What is the smallest fatty acid?
10 Carbons
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Hydrogenation affects what double bond?
Only between 2 carbons
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Syponification of a triglyceride makes what?
glycerol + 3 fatty acid salts
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what end of a fatty acid salt is hydrophilic
(C=O)-ONa
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Characteristics of a glycerophospholipid
- Hydrolyzable
- Ester group
- Looks like a F
- Phosphate group + amino alcohol
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Steroids structure?
3 hexagons and 1 pentagon
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Primary amines have higher or lower b.p. thand tertiary amines
Higher
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Amines act acidic or basic?
Basic
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Amides are acidic or basic?
neither
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Anhydride + amine --->
- R-(C=O)-OH + R-NR-(C=O)-R
- Carboxylix acid + amide
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carboxylix acid + amine --->
- and + salt
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amide + H20 (hydrolysis)
R-(C=O)-O- + NH2-R +
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generalized amino acid
NH2-CH(side group)- C=O- OH
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Zwitter ions contain what
a positive and negative end that reacts with itself
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Neutral?
Overall charge is 0 or pH is 7
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Polar side groups?
alcohols, amines, amides, thiols, carboxylic acids,
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Non-polar side groups
hydrocarbons
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pH neutral groups
Hydrocarbons, alcohols, amides, thiols
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Isoelectric point
pH when the amino acid has an overall charge of 0
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1 level proteins structure?
order of amino acids conected by peptide bonds
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2 level protein structures
- attractions between C=O and N-H of the peptide bonds to give it the alpha- helix shape
- C=O---H-N or Beta-pleated sheets
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3 level protein structure
- Between sidegroups
- disulfide bridge, salt bridge, carboxylic acid and amines
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weakest hydrophobic interaction
hydrocarbon side goup
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4 level of protein structures
side group interactions in more than one protein molecule working together
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Denaturing a protein
primary structure is the same but the shape has changed
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hydrolysis of a protein
breaks the primary structure
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DNA stands for
deoxyribonucleic acid
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RNA stands for
Ribonucleic acid
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Nucleotides do what
building blocks for nucleic acids
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deoxy is missing what
missing one oxygen
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Replication takes place where
nucleus hydrogen bonds seperate
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Transcription needs what
DNA + mRNA
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Translation needs
mRNA + tRNA + amino acids
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Translation:
mRNA and tRNA have what
- mRNA have codons and tRNA have anticodons
- every 3 bases is a codon
- there is 1 tRNA per amino acid
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Substrate + enzyme =
product
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Active site on an enzyme is where
the substrate connects to the enzyme
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Apoenzyme is
the enzyme that is inactive
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Cofactors and coenzymes are
added to the apoenzyme to make it active
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What is an inorganic ion that added together to activate the apoenzyme
Cofactor (minerals)
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Organic molecule (vitamin)
Coenzyme
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What does an inhibitor do
Stop the enzyme from working properly
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Competitive inhibitor works how
it can inhibit the enzyme and go away
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noncompetitive enzymes work how
they are irrecersible and don't come off this is how poisons work the covalent bond to the enzyme
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Glycolysis:
Glucose is broken into
- 2 pyruvate molecules
- CH3-(C=O)2 -O-
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After glycolysis we get what
2 pyruvate molecules, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH
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Pyruvate + CoA-SH + NAD+
acyetal CoA + NADH + CO2
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Citrus Acid Cycle:
Acetal CoA makes what
3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1ATP x2 for glucose
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NADH gives how many ATP
FADH2 gives how many ATP
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Glucose gives how many ATP
36 final total of ATP
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How many acetal CoA's are formed from fatty acid
1 for every 2 Carbons
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formula for fatty acid spiral
- 1/2 of the amount of carbons (acetal CoA) x 12 = atp
- 1/2 of total C - 1 = amount of NADH and FADH2
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muscle cells anaerobic conditions
2 Pyruvate + NADH + H ---> lactate + NAD+
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Yeast under anaerobic conditions
- pyruvate + H ---> C-CO-H + CO2
- aldehyde + NADH + H ---> ethanol + NAD+
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glycogen cycle
- glycogen--------->glucose---------->pyruvate-------------->glucose---------> glycogen
- glycogenolysis glycoysis glycneogenesis glycogenesis
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lysis means
to break apart
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genesis mean
to put together
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amino carbon portion can be converted to what
pyruvate or acetyl CoA
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Nitrogen must go through what cylcle
Urea cycle uses 2 ATP
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Urea waste product
H2N-C=O-NH2
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