Biology Exam Review 2012

• exchange with the environment 
• takes in nutrients, gases, water, etc
• gives back solid, liquid, gaseous wastes 
• grow
• change in physical size 
• maturation (internal changes that make infant -> adult)
• reproduce 
• make offspring 
• organization 
• all parts + processes work together for the benefit of the entire organism 
• movement
• physical movement 
• internal movement 
• respond to stimuli
• for protection  + day to day functions
• (sense&hormones)
• metabolism
• chemical process convert nutrients to energy

• Eubacteria
• Archaebacteria
• Protista 
• Fungi 
• Plantae
• Animalia 
• (virus aren't classified into any kingdoms)

• prokaryotic cells
• can be autotrophic or heterotrophic 
• unicelluar 
• reproduce asexually (most)
• live near everywhere 

ex. bacteria, cyanobacteria 

• prokaryotic 
• live in extreme, conditions (salt springs, hot springs, animal guts) 

ex. methanogens, extreme halophiles, extreme thermophiles

• most are unicellular but some are multicellular 
• most are prokaryotic but some are eukaryotic 
• some autotrophic, some heterotrophic, some both
• reproduced sexually or asexually 
• all live in aquatic environments

ex. algae, amoeba, euglena, paramecium

• most are multicellular 
• all are heterotrophic 
• reproduce sexually or asexually 
• most are terrestrial 
• feed off of dead organic material 

ex. mushrooms, mould, yeast 

• all are multicellular 
• all are autotrophic (photosynthesis)
• reproduce sexually or asexually 
• most are terrestrial 

• ex. mosses, ferns, contifers, flowering plants

• all are multicellular 
• mobile 
• all heterotrophic 
• most reproduce sexually 
• live in aquatic + terrestrial environments

ex. sponges, worms, insects, birds, humans

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• Kingdom                       Animalia
• Phylum                         Chordata 
• Class                             Mammalia 
• Order                            Primates 
• Family                           Hominidae
• Genus                           Homo
• Species                         Sapiens

• shows some signs of life in a living system 
• considered subcellular (no nucleus, no cytoplasm, no membranes)
• have either RNA or DNA but never both 
• 2 types
• DNA virus
• Retrovirus (RNA virus)
• viruses are parasitic 
• most are harmless - only some are pathogenic 

• classified through the host they invade
• plant virus, animal virus, bacterial virus

• ex. herpes virus, cold virus. 

• 1. Attachment & entrance
• the virus chemically recognizes a host cell and attaches (either the whole virus or only the DNA or RNA material enter's the cell's cytoplasm)

• 2.Synthesis of protein & nucleic acids units:
• molecular information within the DNA or RNA material directs the host cells to replicate viral components (nucleic acids, enzymes, capsid proteins& other viral proteins)

• 3. Assembly of the units
• the viral nucleic acids, proteins, enzymes, are brought together to form new virus particles

4. Release of new virus particles: the newly made virus particles are released from the host cell- which dies. 

• Mutalism 
• relationship that benefits both of the organisms involved 

ex. rhizobium 

• Commensalism
• relationship that benefits only one partner with no effect on the other

ex. E coli 

• Parasitism 
• a relationship that benefits one partner and the other (host) is harmed

ex. "Lockjaw"

• usually through binary fission 
• (similar to mitosis but is simpler)
• under ideal conditions- cell can reproduce every 20 min 
• in lab- cells are grown into colonies using growth medium (agar)

• 3 types :
• Conjugation
• Dna segment is tranfered from one bacterial cell to another through specialized structures called pilli. 
• (a bridge forms between two cells & transfers one DNA into the other)

• Transformation
• a segement of DNA from a dead bacterium is "picked up" and incorporated into the DNA of the living bacterium 
• this transforms the bacterium's ability to function 

• Transduction
• requires the activity of a bacteriophage (virus) to transfer host DNA to new bacterial cells
• works best if new host is immune to the phage 
• virus incorporates new DNAs then it is passed on to the offspring

• Obligate Aerobes
• must have oxygen 
• use oxygen for cellular respiration (energy)
• some of the species can cause TB and diptheria

• Obligate Anaerobes
• grow only where there is no oxygen 
• include many species of bacillus species that live in soil 
• responsible for tetanus gangrene, botulism

• Facultative Anaerobes
• can grow with or without oxygen but grows best with oxygen
• majority of bacterial species
• ex. N- fixing bacteria 

• Facultative Aerobes
• can live with or without oxygen but best without oxygen 

• Plant-like Protists
• contain chlorophyll -> photosynthesis
• traditionally called algae *
• variations in reproduction 
• *most reproduce asexually by binary fission 
• also reproduce by fragmentation (asexual) or conjugation (sexual)

• Animal-like Protists
• heterotrophic 
• * some engulf their food and others absorb it
• are classified by their type of movements, organelles, life cycle or nutrition
• reproduction is usually asexually (binary fission)
• many animal protists form cyst (dormancy)

• Fungi-like Protists
• are referred to as slime moulds
• get energy from obtaining available nutrients and carrying out metabolic activities
• *chemical reactions

• asexual
• 1 parent
• no special reproductive organs needed
• occurs in unicellular organisms & simple plants+animals
• offspring are identical to parent 
• very efficent (large # in little amount of time)
• involves cell division by mitosis

• Sexual
• 2 parents
• involves union of two "sex cells" called gametes
• occurs in complex, multicellular organisms
• offspring are similar but not identical
• involves cell division by meiosis, followed by mitosis 
• introduces variation

increases the possibility that individuals may be better adapted to changes in the environment 

Mitosis is a process of cell division where the genetic material in the nucleus duplicates, divides and produces two identical daughter cells

• Prophase
• nuclear membrane disappears
• spindle fibers begin to form 
• thin chromatin (DNA) thicken & become chromosomes
• chromosomes double

• Metaphase
• double-stranded chromosomes line up along the equatorial plate of the cell

• Anaphase
• spindle fibres shorten& pull chromosomes apart
• each chromosome begins to move to opposite poles

• Telophase
• one complete set of chromosomes lies at each pole
• spindle fibres disappear
• nuclear membrane reappears, forming 2 nuclei
• Cytokinesis (pinching of cell membrane) or cell wall = 2 daughter cells

• Interphase (90%)
• cell carries out normal activites
• *cell growth, making proteins, and DNA replication 
• DNA must be replicated 

• Mitosis (10%)

• Chromatin
• when the cell is in interphase, DNA exists in longthread-like structures 
• (looks like squiggles)

• Chromosomes
• prior to cell division, DNA is wound up into these short, compact, rod-like structures 

• Chromatid
• term used to describe two duplicated sister chromosomes at the start of mitosis to seperation during anaphase. 
• (joined by centromere)

• process by which sex cells (gametes) are formed. 
• has 8 stages (Prophase I, Prophase II, etc ..)
• accomplishes major changes:
• crossing-over
• random assortment (Anaphase I)
• and reduction division (2n -> n)

• doesn't create identical daughter cells,
• has more stages, crossing-over, tetrads, amount of chromosome is halfed, end up with haploid cells. 

• crossing-over
• pieces of DNA are exchanged between the homologous chromosomes
• random assortment
• when the paternal& maternal homologous chromosomes are split apart, they are randomly pulled to a pole (Anaphase I)

combination of gametes at fertilization 

• considered one of the basic mechanisms of evolution that believes life forms have evolved gradually.
• Because species produce more offspring than can survive, there is a competition for survival. Nature selects the fittest that deserve to live and selects certain traits over others.