BIS 2B

• 1. Observational
• 2. experimental
• 3. theoretical

obtaining data on organisms in nature without intervening

manipulations in the field or laboratory

generalizations, predictions, mathematical models

change in the properties of populations over the course of generations caused by descent with modification

a group of conspecific organisms

a process that produces adaptations resulting from differential reproductive success among organism in the same population (Charles Darwin, Alfred Wallace)

major force of evolution

used to predict how species will repsond to graphic/local change

Characteristics that suit organisms to their environment

Number of viable offspring produced during and organism's entire life

When individuals with different genetic makeup survive or reproduce at different rates

Allele frequencies

evolutionary history of organisms based on their genealogical relationships.

Dinosaurs; birds

evolutionary history of organisms based on their genealogical relationships (common ancestry)

1. Interactions between organisms and their environment create adaptations via natural selection

2. Natural selection molds ecological interactions

evolutionary and ecological processes may occur on similar time scales leading to feedbacks that can be observed directly. Leads to global change

• 1. Explained only by reference to natural causes
• 2. Does not reject or accept supernatural forces
• 3. Can be justified purely on practical grounds
• Evolutionary theory should not be used to judge moral or ethical issues
• 4. position that supernatural forces to not exist

• 1. Heterozygotes/averages are preserved. 
• 2. Variation is reduced
• 3. Mutations - less fit individuals produced by accident, they do well in another area

Ex: Average babies survive better than heavy and light ones

• 1. Climate change
• 2. Frequency of phenotype favored by environment

Ex: Texas longhorns were developed to fight off predation. Males with long horns survived. Ones who developed resistance to diseases survived

• 1. Most common compete for food and die off
• 2. Extremes benefit in changing environment
• 3. Less common go unnoticed
• 4. Parasitism- parasite adapt to live inside most common type

** may lead to two new species

Ex: African with big bills or small bills survive

reproductive success of an organism relative to others in the same population

• 1. Phenotypic Variation
• 2. Different phenotypes have different variation
• 3. Phenotypic variation is hertable

variation in traits among organism 

• 1. continuous -- bell shaped -- Aa more fit
• 2. discontinuous -- blocks -- 

Traits

Natural selection increase frequency of genes in a population that code for traits which give individuals the highest fitness.

Predation: the moths that could be seen were eaten

typical

There was a drought where only large, hard seeds could be cracked, so finches with large beaks survived, thus the directional shift towards large beak phenotype

Polymorphism

It is when fitness of a genotype depends on  whether it is rare or common. (its fitness is affected by genotypes frequencies of others in the same population.

The recapture of rare guppies were higher because the common ones were eaten.

polymorphism

Phenotypic Plasticity - environmental (not genetic) effects on phenotype variation

shorter legs

Biodiversity

• genetics diversity
• species diversity
• functional diversity

the diversity of genes in populations

the diversity of functional roles that species play in ecosystem processes

the diversity of species in the community

number of species

the distribution of the abundance of individuals within each species in the community

D = 1- (p_i)²

• S = Number of species
• c = y intercept concept
• A = areal of island
• z = constant (slope)

• 1. There are more types of habitats on larger islands (mountains, freshwater ponds, lakes and streams)
• 2. The physical environment is more benign on larger islands (fewer disturbances) because smaller islands have a greater perimeter/area
• 3.Extinction rate is lower on larger islands because populations size of each species is larger

Species diversity is higher in the tropics than other areas on earth

• 1. Tropical communities have had more time for speciation than temperate or polar communities
• 2. more species can adapt to favorable climates than harsh climates in other areas
• 3. tropical zones contain more area on the globe than temperate areas

Biomes

an environment that is defined by its climatic and geographic attributes and characterized by ecologically similar orgamisms, particularly its dominant plants

• Long cold winters
• short cool summers
• Found in the Artic and high elevations in mountatins

Tropical Alpine Tundra have no permafrost. phosynthesis occurs

few plants and birds. more in the summer. Plants have hairy leaves that trap heat. Animals have thick fur

lower altitudes than tundras

• COLD COLD winters. 
• Warms summers, migratory birds come

• summer favors evergreen leaves. 
• low plants and animals in the winter. Moose, hares, rodents, insects

changes with seasons

• warm, moist summers
• cold winters

trees and shrubs, many animals. permanent residents gain fat to keep warm. hibernate

dry most of the year

adapted to grazing and fire. Store energy underground and sprout quickly after being burned or grazed

Has lot of mammals. few birds

taken over by agriculture

• winters warm and dry
• summers warm and wet

rich in plant and animals

dry regions. mid to high laditude

• winter, cold and dry
• summer, warmer and dry

low growing shrubs, small insects, rodents

• wet and cold winter
• dry and warm winters

• low growing shrubs, adapted to fires
• produce strong smelling defense chemicals to fight off herbivores

grasslands adapted to fires

• mild dry winters
• wet warm summers

meant for grazing. rich in mammals, birds, reptiles

moderately rich in tree species, mammal, birds, reptiles

• hot, wet summers
• hot dry winters

• most diverse biome
• tropical but seasonal rainfall
• extremely high plants and animals
• warm and rain all year

continental shelf, benthic zone, abyssal plain

the open water above the ocean floor

• coastal zone habitats - kelp forest, coral reef
• benthic zone- not much...

rocky intertidal zone, pelagic zones

have starfish, mussels, and barnacles

aquatic plants that can take up nutrients by diffusion from the surrounding water which can be limited in the stagnant "boundary layer"  along a cell surface.

therefore uptake of nutrients increases with the flow rate of water

Broad bumpy blade flaps in the current, increaing nutrient delivery = 4x more nutrient uptake

There is a tradeoff between nutriennt uptake and survival. The kelp is kelp susceptible to dislodgement by heavy surf

• bumpy- calm water
• streamlined- heavy surf

Fe, K, Mg

Rhizobia form nodules and are able to convert N to NH3

Mycorrhizae enhance nutrient and water uptake

• denitition for grinding plant matter
• long gut to aid digestion
• piercing or sucking mouthparts for insects
• enzymes to detoxify plant chemical defenses

• attack and consume animals
• sharp teeth, claws
• nemacytes (jellyfish)

consume dead plant or animal matter

inseccts, bacteria, and fungi

remove suspended particles from the water

sponges (algae, diatoms) , feather dusters

consume dead organic matter

• trade off. specialists evolved increased efficiency of feeding on few species.
• generalists feed on variety of species to obtain a balanced diet, increase food availability  and decrease intake of certain toxins.

Natural selection favors foraging behavior that increases fitness.

should maximize energy per unit of time spent foraging because it increases amount of food obtain and decreases amount of time spent.

• 1. Best food type is always included in diet
• 2. When abundance of all food types increases, forager becomes more specialized

carbon, oxygen, hydrogen

nitrogen, phosphorus, 

Change of O2 in light - CHange of O2 in dark

study of how organism are ale to survive and function in their environemtn