Arch 112

-belief from greek and roman time, held over to medieval times that believed that the earth was the center of the universe

• -known as antipodes
• -lived in the periphery of the world, or on the other side (when world was believed to be flat)
• -only had deformed outward characteristics, were not compromised morally

• -believed "creation" occurred at 9am Sunday October 23 4004BC
• -believed in fixity of species and stasis in all forms of nature

• -discovered the world was round and not flat
• -left questions about where the other people of the world came from

-copernicus re-introduced concept that sun was center of solar system, not earth center of galaxy (geocentric view)

-belief that natural disasters are responsible for the immense geological/physical changes the earth had undergone in such a short time (creationist theory)

• -understanding that most of the earth's features are a result of long term processes(tectonic plates etc)
• -introduced by Georges Buffon, proved by Charles Lyell (took measurements from niagra falls)

• -swedish naturalist 
• -classified humans as part of the ape family in 1758
• -provided basis for modern taxonomic naming

• -believed in use-disuse theory of evolution, animals developed things that they needed and lost things they didn't
• -coined term biology

• -voyaged on HMS Beagle
• -published Origin of Species outlining natural selection method of evolution

• -independently developed same theory as Darwin while working in Southeast asia
• -lost many specimens in a shipwreck

-MECHANISM for evolutionary change that favours survival and reproduction of some organisms over others because of adaptive characteristics 

• 1-variation in traits
• 2-differential reproduction
• 3-inheritance of traits
• 4-end result, evolution by natural selection

-people that existed before the flood from the bible that saved Noah

• -danish curator who began organizing artifacts into three prehistoric ages
• -stone, bronze and iron ages

• -branch of anthropology focusing on the human cultural past
• -the study of material remains

-a location in which evidence of past human activity is preserved

-any object made or altered by humans

• -non artifactual item that has cultural relevance eg. organic(animal and plant remains) or inorganic (eg. minerals, stones)
• -example in class was of rock that looked like a bear that people would have moved from natural occurring area

-non portable element of an archeological site that reflects human behaviour eg. hearth, midden(garbage dump) or grave etc

-artifacts of ecofacts left at the place where they were produced or used (an INTACT area)

-artifacts or ecofacts that were moved by people to a designated refuse area (midden)

• -arrangement of rock and sediment into layers(strata) formed by natural processes and anthropogenic(human caused) activities
• -depositional unit represents a particular point in time

• -earthworks that cast shadows and are visible only during low light
• -generally found using ariel surveys

• -differences in soil moisture or texture which can reveal buried features (flattened burial mounds or cairns)
• -revealed in aerial survey

• -variations in plant growth and vegetation of an area can reveal buried features (ditches, walls, latrines)
• -found using ariel surveys

• -most common and least expensive way to find archeological sites
• -can be unsystematic or systematic 

-test pits, generally .25-1.0 m2 

• -ground penetrating radar
• -proton magnetometer
• -electrical resistivity 

-exact location an item was found in a site

-location of an artifact etc relative to other artifacts etc in the same site

-the term which refers to how artifacts are left in the place they are uncovered for documentation

-reference point for all vertical depth and horizontal documentation

• particular characteristic of an artifact
• (shape, decorations, raw material etc)

-classification of artifact types for a specific context (time period, geographic region)

-observing living peoples in order to better understand past life ways (flint knapping, observing hunting methods)

-studying historical documents describing past cultures and using them to interpret past behaviour (aztec codices)

-study of animal remains in order to reconstruct diet etc

• MNI-minimum number of individuals (5 right deer femurs means minimum 5 deer there)
• NISP-number of individual species

• -comparative method,older than this kinda thing. no exact dates
• -uses law of superposition- for undisturbed stratigraphic layers, more recent ones are superimposed on top of older ones
• -use seriation-a chronological sequence of changing artifact styles (different generations of iPod's will allow us to figure out which one is older)

• -methods that provide specific dates in years
• -radiocarbon dating (C¹⁴) half life 5730 years
• -MUST HAVE organic material

• -tree ring dating
• -must develop master sequence for specific area for effectiveness 
• -used to establish calibration curve for radiocarbon dating

• -starter of processual archaeology (1960's)
• -believed in strictly deductive as opposed to inductive reasoning

• -belief in understanding through emic (from an insiders perspective) 
• -focused on interpretation of what is found

-focus on the individuals within a society rather than society as a whole

• -stewardship-conservation responsibility
• -accountability-through public consultation
• -commercialization-should be discouraged
• -intellectual property-should not be hoarded
• -reporting and publication-data should be disseminated 

• -systematic study of humans as biological organisms
• -bioarchaeology and paleoanthropology- the study of PAST populations (or hominin species) through the examination of remains (what she does)

-the remains or imprints of a once living organism (squirrel hit by car is technically a fossil, remains of once living thing)

• -roughly 206 bones in adult body
• -over 300 in infants
• -1000ish in teens
• -5 functions-support, protection, movement, mineral storage and blood cell production

• -core of the body
• -skull(humans is big with a very large vault for our brains), hyoid bone(where your tongue anchors), vertebrae, sacrum and sternum

-upper and lower limbs

-clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, carpals(wrist bones), metacarpals(hand bones), manual phalanges (fingers)

-os coxae(hip bones), femur, patella(knee cap), tibia, fibula, tarsals(foot bones), metatarsals, pedal phalanges

• -cross section of ribs is round
• -scapulae have greatest width parallel to vertebral column
• -long bones are very thin
• -short broad hip bones
• -(she likes to identify people by pubic bone)

• -easiest on people past puberty (80%+ effectiveness)
• -metric(measurable) vs non-metric(morphological, visible) determination
• -male vs female hip bones is example of sexual dimorphism (male have one characteristic, females a distinctly different one)
• -men about 8-10% larger

• -under 20 years old is easiest to get accurately
• -dental formation and eruption
• -bone growth and union

-generation of life from non living matter about 3.6 billion years ago (earth 4.5 billion years old)

• -systematic change through time
• -NOT directed, has no purpose, mostly random
• -never stops

-changes in population allele from one generation to the next (lots of blue eyes in one generation)

• -long term patterns of genetic change 
• -includes process of speciation

• -basic unit of biological classification
• -must be capable of interbreeding naturally and producing fertile offspring

-group of organisms exhibiting some degree of genetic isolation from other populations of same species (amish ppl)

• -individuals of like genotype mate more often than predicted under random conditions
• -leads to increase of homozygosity 

• -mating of individuals with unlike genotype more often than predicted
• -results in increased heterozygosity

• -extreme form of positive assortative mating
• -results in exaggerated homozygosity (reason pure bred dogs have typical problems in a breed)

• -mechanism of evolution
• -only way to introduce different genetic information
• -can be result of DNA replication/translation error OR from outside stimuli(radiation, chemical agents)
• -generally occurs in 1% of population
• -back mutation can occur but is extremely rare

• -method of evolution
• -process by which traits become more or less common in a population
• -over long period of time can completely eliminate a trait from a population
• -does NOT create more genetic variation
• -example of domesticated foxes in about 5-6 generations

• -mechanism of evolution
• -migration-genes move from one population to another and are interbred (metis)

• -mechanism of evolution
• -bottleneck-substantial reduction in population size(plagues etc) that can leave lots of one type of gene to be reproduced 
• -founder effect-when small area is settled by small number of people can lead to genetic similarities in populations for generations

• -evolutionary formation of new species
• -allopatric speciation-geographic isolation blocks gene flow
• -sympatric speciation-results from reproductive isolation in the parents
• -gradualism-theory that speciation is slow and steady, with cumulative changes
• -punctuated equilibrium-theory that species tend to remain relatively stable with sudden speciation occurring due to substantial change

• -transformation of a single unbranched line of organisms to a new species
• -ex. horse 
• -the less evolved species do not survive, but are replaced over time

• -budding off of new species from parent species, but the parent species continues on
• -favours biological diversity
• -ex. darwin's finches

• -analogous(homoplasies)- share the same function, but evolved separately
• -homologous-share the same evolutionary source
•  

• -kingdom classification
• -possess well developed nervous, sensory and movement systems

• -300-250 mya appearance of mammal like reptiles
• -200 mya first true mammals appear (small, mouse like)
• -70 mya appearance of first placental mammals
• -65 mya mammals and birds replace reptiles as dominant land vertbrates

• -characterize ALL and ONLY mammals
• 1)mammary/sweat glands
• 2)hair (at least some at the beginning of life cycle)
• 3)mandible comprised of one bone on each side
• 4)middle ears containing 3 bones (auditory ossicles)
• 5)left curvature of the aorta (main artery leaving the heart)
• 6)a diaphragm 

• -most give birth to live young
• -placenta- organ that develops inside a pregnant female to provide nutrients and oxygen to the fetus (increases likelihood of fetal survival, but has high energy demands on mother and limits number of offspring)

• -spend much longer rearing the offspring
• -produce much fewer offspring as a result
• -orangutans have a child once every 8 years

• -homeothermy- constant body temo
• -endothermy- internal heat generation
• -requires high energy input and efficient food processing 
• -need insulation (hair, fat) against heat loss
• -require cooling mechanisms (sweat glands, panting, complex lungs)

• -two sets deciduous(baby) and permanent(adult)
• -heterodontic-possess more than one type of tooth
• incisors-cutting, slicing
• canines-pointed, piercing, tearing
• molars-grinding, shearing, chewing

• -limbs positioned under body to allow bones to take weight of body
• -joints operate in sagittal plane (cut straight through your head with one arm and leg on each side of cut)
• -flexible vertebral column to allow large strides (horse running)

• -forebrain is enlarged in mammals
• -rely more on learning

• -65 mya early primates begin to diverge from mammals
• -small and nocturnal
• -55 mya first true primates appear, resembling prosimians 

• -enlarged eyes, often with sensitivity to low light
• -complete bony orbits around eyes
• -orbital convergence(eyes at the front) allows binocular stereoscopic vision (create 3d images)
• -decreased olfactory senses (reduced snout, loss of naked rhinarium (wet nose for smell))

• -pentadactyly(having five toes/fingers) ancestral trait
• -prehensile-grasping ability
• -expanded tactile pads with nails instead of claws
• -opposable thumbs

• -generally single offspring
• -one pair of thoracic mammary glands
• -long period of infant growth(to learn needed social behaviour and motor skills)
• -mother infant bond beyond nourishment 

• -larger more complex brains than other mammals (larger cerebrum)
• -large reliance on learning 
• (washing potatoes story)

• -closest resemblance to first primates
• -still have naked rhinarium(wet nose)
• -large eyed for night use
• -lorises
• -lemurs
• -tarsiers

• -prosimian
• -small, solitary arboreal(live in trees)

• -only live on madagascar
• -nocturnal and diurnal(during the day), arboreal and terrestrial (live in trees and on ground)

• -small, arboreal, nocturnal and insectivorous 
• -vertical clinging and leaping
• -180 degree rotation of head

• -decreased reliance on olfaction (no naked rhinarium, generally reduced snout
• -increased social complexity 

• -nothing more northern than southern mexico
• -flat nosed, wide spaced nostrils
• -arboreal
• -diurnal(active day and night)
• -generally smaller
• -prehensile(grasping) tails

• -africa and asia
• -narrow noses
• -diurnal
• -mostly arboreal(some terrestrial)
• -NEVER have prehensile tail
• -generally larger with greater sexual dimorphism 
• -many species' females develop sexual swelling (estrus) 

• -africa and asia
• -generally larger body size
• -no tail
• -short, stable trunk
• -specialized for brachiation(suspensory locomotion)
• -long forelimbs and fingers, with reduced thumbs

• -gibbons and siamangs
• -southeast asia
• -small body size(15-25lbs)
• -habitual brachiators
• -permanently curved fingers
• -powerful shoulders
• -long arms short legs

• -chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas and orangutans 
• -large bodied (75-300lbs)
• -africa and southeast asia
• -predominately terrestrial quadrapedalism, arboreal quadrapedalism, brachiation, and occasionally bipedalism
• -largely vegetarian or omnivorous
• -oragutans are solitary all others have complex social structure

• -forward placed foramen magnum(hole in skull for spinal cord)
• -S curved vertebral column and narrow rib cage allows central body weight
• -lumbar lordosis(curving of spine during pregnancy for women which keeps center of gravity)
• -short broad pelvis allows vertical standing and anchors leg muscles
• -lengthened lower limbs
• -angled in femur
• -powerful hip/thigh muscles (abductors counter act torque when we walk, gluteus maximus stabilizes trunk and extends leg)
• -locking knee allows efficient gait
• -large and aligned big toe with arched foot allows efficient energy transfer

• -long legs relative to body size 
• -large joint surfaces to dissipate impact forces
• -enlarged gluteus maximus
• -narrow waist and broad shoulders allow counter rotation of trunk versus hips to maintain balance
• -head can stay straight while we run
• -obligate oral breathing

• -different theories
• -carrying, vigilance, heat stress, and most likely energy efficiency 

• -hemispheric specialization of brain (left side for language and symbol use)
• -Broca's area-speech production
• -wernicke's area- language comprehension 

• -increasing brain size since genus homo arose 
• -allows transmission of culture(learning)
• -tool use
• -social complexity 
• -resource hoarding
• -meat consumption to feed brain acquired through scavenging, led to evolution of face shape and teeth

• -probable hominin
• -discovered in Chad
• -dated to 6-7 mya
• -had flat face with massive brow ridges, forward position of foramen magnum, smaller canines
• -showed no increase in brain size ~350cc

• -discovered in ethiopia
• -4.5mya
• -highly fragmented, MNI of 36+1 more complete
• -hominin traits:forward foramen magnum, incisiform canines
• -ancestral traits:terrestrial biped, but arboreal quadraped

• -genus australopithecus (5-6 different species)
• -2.5-4 mya in africa
• -bipeds, but lacked efficient gait
• -small bodied
• protruding face and small brains ~450cc

• -discovered by Raymond Dart in south africa
• -young ape with small canines and forward foramen magnum
• -originally dismissed by scholars

• -australopithecus afarensis 
• -40% complete skeleton of small female hominin
• -human like from waist down
• -discovered in ethiopia
• -Salem was older, but was a child so was referred to as Lucy's baby

• -genus paranthropus (3-4 species)
• -1-2.8 mya
• east and southern africa
• -had massive chewing apparatus
• -discovered by Robert Broom 1939
• -large molars, pronounced sagittal crest on top of head, flared cheekbones and massive mandible

• -first member of Homo genus
• -1.5-2.5 mya
• -30% increase in brain size ~650-700cc
• -smaller teeth, rounder cranium
• -ancestral traits:small post cranial skeleton, still had long arms for arboreal adaptations

• -1.9mya-53,000 years ago
• -large cranial capacity, 70% of humans ~950cc
• -discovered on indonesian island of Java
• -compared to human skull had protruding face, large brow ridges, large nuchal crest(powerful neck muscles), no chin, football shaped cranium
• -narrow pelvis suggested immature small brained infants with extensive postnatal brain growth
• -relatively long legs and adapted to running
• -more robust than modern humans
• -quickly spread from africa up into Eurasia