evolution

the change in the properties of groups of organisms over the course of generations

NO

established the framework of modern classification; classified plants and animals

hutton and lyell; the same processes that operated in the past as in the present, and that the observations of many systems should therefore be explained by causes that we can now observe

over time, species originate by spontaneous generation, and each evolves up the scale of organization, establishing a chain of being that ranged from newly originated simple forms of life to older, more complex forms

the belief that such alteration, acquired during an individual's lifetime, are inherited

• descent with modification
• common descent
• gradualism
• populational change
• natural selection

all species have descended without interruption from one or a few original forms of life

all species have diverged from common ancestors and all of life can be portrayed as one great family tree

the differences between even radically different organisms have evolved incrementally, by small steps through intermediate forms

evolution occurs by changes in the proportions of individuals within a population that have different inherited characterstics

if individuals of a species with superior features survive and reproduce more successfully than individuals with inferior features, and if these differences were inherited, the average character of the species would be altered

use and disuse are the primary drivers of evolution. individual organisms change in response to needs

species evolve in a predetermined direction

mutation might cause instantaneous origin of new species and novel traits

• phenotype vs genotype
• acquired characterstics are not inherited
• heredity based on genes retain their identity as they pass through the generations
• mutation creates stable alternative alleles
• populational process
• mutation itself has little effect on populations
• natural selection can account for both slight and great variations
• natural selection can alter populations beyond the original range of variation
• mutations can accumulate
• differences between species can evolve in small steps
• all organisms are related by common ancestry
• population processes can explain the differences between higher taxa

• individuals with different trait values have diffrrent probabilities of survival and/or reproduction
• offspring tend to resemble parents
• next generation will ahve a different set of trait values
• new variation arises each generation
• continues selection results in changes beyond the original range of variation

• literally selection
• purposeful
• forward-looking
• the only cause of evolution
• opposed to cooperation or altruism

• available variation
• antagonistic pleiotropy
• trade-offs
• gene flow
• physical constraints
• arms races
• lack of foresight

a characteristic that enhances the survival or reproduction of organisms that bear it

the average per capita rate of increase in offspring

• the probability of survival to reproducrive age
• the average number of offspring produces via female function
• the average number of offspring produced via male function

variation in the number of offspring produced as a consequence of competition for mates

transmitted at a higher rate than the rest of an individual's genome and are detrimental to the organism

a feature that reduces the fitness of an individual that bears it for the benefit of the population or species

a feature that fortuitously serves a new function (feathers for flight)

preadaptations that have actually been co-opted to serve a new function (swim bladder)

most features of an organism are modified from pre-existing features

evolution of different characters at different rates within a lineage

evol. change in relative timing or rate of different developmental processes

different parts have different growth rates

similar features are formed by different developmental pathway

similar developmental modifications that evolved independently

a return from a derived charact state to an ancestral state

• mutation
• genetic drift
• gene flow
• selection
• recombination

each species has to run as fast as possible just to stay in the same place because its competitors, predators, and parasites also continue to evolve

females reproduce once

females reproduce more than once

• meiosis
• recombination
• matin
• producing males

leads to evolution of characters involved in winning in combat with other males

leads to evolution of characters important in attracting females

• size at birth
• growth rate
• age and size at maturity
• fecundity
• mortality rates
• lifespan

invest early in reproduction and age rapidly

spread reproductive effort over time and age slowly

an evol change in one species may evoke a reciprocal change in another species

two species evolve in response to one another

several species are involved and their effects are not independent

a species evolves a defense against enemies, and is thereby enabled to proliferate into a diverse class

interactions between species that benefit individuals of both species

individuals are intimately associated for much of their lifetimes

• mating is random
• population infinite
• no gene flow
• no mutation
• no selection

random fluctuations in the frequencies of alleles

• novelty
• adaptive radiation
• stasis and change
• trends and progress

species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding organisms that are reproductively isolated from other such groups

species must be groups of organisms that are diagnosible from other such units and share a pattern of ancestry and descent

species are the most exclusive groups of organisms that are all descended from a common ancestral organism

the fitness of a gene as measured by its effect on the survival or reproduction of both the organism bearing it and the organism's relatives

alleles differ in their rate of propagation by influencing the impact of their bearers on the reproductive success of individuals who carry the same alleles by common descent

an altruistic trait can increase in frequency if the benefit received by the donor's relatives exceeds the cost of the trait to the donor's fitness (rb > c)

can be advantageous for an individual to help another if the recipient will provide reciprocal aid in the future

an individual sacrifices so the group thrives