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What happens to kidney functions if blood pressure drops too much?
Kidney secretes renin (enzyme that activates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway). Increased renin levels leads to increased blood pressure
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What can happen if your long-term blood pressure stays too high?
Hypertension may worsten and could lead to other heart disease which may lead to death
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Function of Eosinophils
Phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes & are effective against certain parasitic worms; combat effects of histamine in allergic reactions
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Function of Neutrophils
Phagocytosis, destruction of bacteria & dispose of dead matter
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Function of Basophils
Releases heparin, histamine, & serotonin in allergic reactions
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Function of Monocytes
Phagocytosis
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Function of Lymphocytes
Help combat infection & provide protection against some diseases
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Function of Platelets
Help stop blood loss from damaged blood vessels; promote blood clotting
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What are Macrophages?
Enlarged & differentiated monocytes (largest type of WBC, characterized by agranular cytoplasm)
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What are Mast Cells?
Cell found in areolar connective tissue that releases histamine
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Functions of B- & T- lymphocytes. Which of these attack virus infected cells?
B-lymphocytes - effective in destroying bacteria & inactivating their toxins
T-lymphocytes - attack viruses, fungi, transplanted cells, cancer cells & some bacteria; also responsible for transfusion reactions, allergies, & rejection of transplanted organs
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Why is albumen important?
Transports proteins for several steroid hormones & fatty acids
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What do antibodies and fibrinogen do?
Antibodies - binds to antigen & inactivates the bacteria/virus
Fibrinogen - involved in blood clotting
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Function of Histamine
Increases permeability of blood vessels & constriction of bronchioles
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Intrinsic Pathway VS Extrinsic Pathway
Intrinsic - activates Factor XII then Factor X; activated by blood trauma
Extrinsic - activates Factor X; activated by tissue trauma
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What are clotting fibers?
Fibrin threads that contribute to clotting
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Why is Calcium important in the formation of clotting?
Activates clotting factors
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What are some unique features of cardiac muscles?
Intercalated discs - contain desmosomes, which hold fibers together
Gap junctions - allow muscle action potentials to conduct from one muscle fiber to another
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Where is the pacemaker located?
Autorhythmic fibers
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What is the job of the AV node?
Acts as the site where action potentials can conduct from the atria to ventricles which then goes to the right & left bundle branches
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How does the refractory period of cardiac muscle compare to that of skeletal muscle?
Tetanus (maintained contraction) cannot occur in cardiac muscle
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Why is it a good deal that the refractory period is so much longer—what would happen if it weren’t’?
If tetanus occurred then blood flow would cease
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What goes on during the P-QRS-T segments?
P segment - atrial depolarization
QRS segment - rapid ventricular depolarization
T segment - ventricular repolarization
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If you have a large P wave, for what can that be diagnostic?
Enlarged atrium
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What is the significance of a large R wave? A large Q wave?
Enlarged ventricles; Myocardial infarction
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What are possible inputs to the cardiovascular center?
Possible inputs - cerebral cortex, limbic system, & hypothalamus (from higher brain) proprioceptors, chemoreceptors & baroreceptors (from sensory receptors)
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How is the output modified so as to increase or decrease heart rate?
Output modification - age, gender, physical fitness & body temperature
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What are factors that affect peripheral resistance?
An increase in vasoconstriction
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What does polycythemia mean?
Disorder in which hypertension, thrombosis, & hemorrhage can occur
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Why are athletes who use EPO at risk of heart attack & stroke?
Too much RBC production, which leads to clogging capillaries
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Why does obesity increase peripheral resistance?
Obesity causes vasoconstriction, which also affects peripheral resistance
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What does venoconstriction mean?
An increase in blood volume back to the heart
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Which is more important in terms of raising blood pressure: venoconstriction or arterial constriction?
Arterial constriction
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Regulation of blood pressure (short-term)
When blood pressure decreases, heart increases or when blood pressure increases, heart rate decreases
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Blood pressure regulation (long-term)
ADH, angiotensin II, & aldosterone increases blood pressure; atrial natriuretic peptide decreases blood pressure
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What does hypovolemic mean?
Low volume of blood
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How does blood to the brain change during exercise?
Blood gets distributed more to the muscles
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How does cardiac output change with exercise?
Cardiac output increases to supply tissues with more oxygen & nutrients & heart rate increases
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How are we able to shut down blood to certain organs during exercise?
Pre-capillary sphincters regulate blood flow
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What is one of the important jobs of the lymphatic system?
Takes in excess fluid from arteries & veins & returns back to circulating system
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What hormones are involved in regulating the amount of fluid in the blood so as to maintain blood pressure within limits?
ADH & aldosterone
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Where do we find angiotensin-converting enzyme being made?
Kidneys
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Where is renin made?
Kidneys
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Function of renin
Along with angiotensin converting enzyme, act on their substrates to produce the active hormone angiotensin II, which raises blood pressure
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Function of Aldosterone
Retains Na & H2O which increases blood pressure
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Function of ADH
Retains H20 which increases blood volume, increases blood pressure
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Function of Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)
Opposite of aldosterone; doesn’t retain Na & H2O which decreases blood pressure
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Function of Angriotensin II
Arterial constriction increases blood pressure; acts on adrenal cortex which leads to aldosterone
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Where is Angriotensin II made?
Red blood cells & vascular beds of some tissues
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Where would you find Angiotensin in the body?
Liver
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