Neuroscience People

• Snyder found the opiate receptor
• 

• Formulated the law of specific nerve
• The bottom line for this law is that what we experience is what our nerves system got stimulated
• We code for modality – code for what part of the sensory system is
• However this is not a very valid law because now we know that there are other nerve fibers in a specific nerve that carries other information



The first person who was willing to study taste neuology

• Rockefeller University
• Use different techniques to study taste
• 2-DG injected in animal --> dissection --> study taste path

Worked with Mudpuppy in the Sour and salty taste experiment

• Started experiments of bitter taste with rodents in 1999
• Utilized some advanced techniques used in the olfactory system study developed by Linda Buck
• T₂R_s - bitter

Approached the bitter taste question from a different way with the technique called rapid kinetics

The study of transdution and firing rates

A group use molecular techniques to study transduction

• Suggested that there might be two types of cells in taste buds
• One groups consists of the true receptor cells (have only one response); the others are the presynaptic cells (distribute information to afferent pathways)

• T₁R₂/T₁R₃ - sweet
• T₁R₁/T₁R₃ - umami
• T₁R₃ is associate to both of them

The woman who has done most researches on umami

• Took the fiber in the afferent nerve and the dissect out single axons, then found that either one of the single axons respond to multiple taste qualities.
• in 1954, he proposed an article called "Accross Fiber Patterning"

• Noticed the "Best response" - a cell fires fastest to a specific stimuli
• Depends on the speed of the taste duction, the cell that combines information will decide te actual taste based on the different firing speed of actual input

• Expert in fly studies
• Gave apple juice, beer ... to test the best response
• Found out that flies makes its best response when it is given pure sugar solution

• Olfactory System
• Dendro-dendrite synapses (interaction between cells)

• Classic example putting an electrode inside and outside of the membrane
• Found graded potentials, and cells respond to more than one distinct kind of stimuli

• Used rats and chemicals known as olfactory stimulus
• Measured changes in cAMP (increase level)
• Argued that transduction process must involve cAMP
• Patch clamp recording

cAMP opens cation channels

G_OLF adenylate cyclase

• There must be a large family of protein receptors
• Thousands of sense stimuli --> a large family of proteins would bind to G-proteins
• No evidence for the olfactory system --> more information needed
• Looked at sheep's olfactory epithelium --> put in proteins to attach to the molecules --> found that protein receptor molecules were organized in bands

• PhD thesis
• Proposed 7 basic olfactory stimuli --> so there must be 7 basic smell receptors
• "Stereochemical theory or odor"
• He later gave up the theory, as he found more and more "basic stimuli"

• Olfactory
• Gas Chomatic Theory - 層析法
• Proposed that the olfactory epithelium worked in a similar way. When you take in a deep breath, the molecules in the air would compete with each other. Mozell put electrodes in different areas of the epithelium – a band of cells would respond to one particular kind of molecules, another band would respond to another molecules - spatial/place coding

• Olfactory
• Use two kinds of stimuli (include the use of 2-DG)
• Then sacrifice the animal, did anatomy in their brain - olfactory bulbs --> study the place coding in olfactory bulbs
• Then use lesion to retest the behaviors

• Olfactory
• Extremely good at doing lesion invervention
• Assisted Lancet's experiment
• Lesion made precisely in the 2-DG response area --> waited for recovery --> put animals to Skinner's box --> animal perform olfactory related tasks, given 2-DG --> animals were able to perform tasks --> response scattered everywhere, no specific cluster area anymore --> other cells take over the 2-DG processing responsibility

• Olfactory
• Thought he got a protein that binds with the pheromones, but later found out that it was not
• Olfactory Binding Protein (OBP)
• Discover that the pheromone dissolved in OBP and goes into the cell

• Olfactory
• Found a protein that binds to pheromones --> but later found that it was not a receptor either
• Sensory neuron membrane protein 1 (SNMP1) --> a docking protein that help ligand get oriented and get binded to the receptor molecule

• Olfactory
• Provide IP₃ cascade on a millisecond basis

• Olfactory
• Took the pheromone secreted by the females and studied them.
• He found that one pheromone usually have 3-4 compounds in it (up to 7)
• Species-specific, Race specific
• Geographical bands across the US
• Special cage desing to trap male moths

• Olfactory
• Worked with fruit moth

• Worked with silk moth
• 1-bombykol / 2-bombykal (one is alcohol, one is alberhy)
• Bombykol got the male's wing fluttering, while Bombykal stopped the wing from fluttering

• Worked with Oriental Fruit Moth
• Built the wind tower to produce female pheromone plume to observe the male's behavior
• Importantce of pheromone compound presicity increases when the stimulus intensity increases

• Studied the MCG
• Put a male imaginal disc (later develop into the macroglomerular complex - MCG - only found in male) into a female lava --> use the female who have the implanted imaginal disc to do the pheromone plume experiment --> the female behaves like the way male does

• Made nice data from male MCG
• Some MCG cells responded “best” to the whole pheromone blend; some respond “best” to one or another compound in the pheromone blend; some respond “best” to intermittent stimuli

Did similar work with Hamsters' olfactory system

• Unpublished human olfactory research
• Took a putative male pheromone --> put it on a dentist's waiting room's chair --> females would go sit there more often

Invented dB (分貝)

Investigated basilar membrane with human bodies

• Experiment with the cat
• Put an electrode on the cat --> one spoke to the cat --> the other one could hear what was spoken to the cat in another room with the microphone to the electrode

• Blindfolded their participants, put them on a field, played flute or rang bells --> ask participants to distinguish sound directions from left, right, front and back (front and back had much lower accuracy)
• Also found a deaf person as participant and found that he could also distinguish directions to some extend

Repeated Giovani and Venture's experiment, and found similar results

• Repeated the experiment at Harvard
• Used more advanced stimulus - electrode instrument
• Further eliminated inventions
• Found that sound frequency affect participants' ability to tell difference in location
• Hi/Lo --> respond better; mid --> poor result
• Two different mechanisms used in the process

• German scientist
• Designed a method to check whether a person was really deaf

• Dualism - body obeys to laws of physics, mind does not follow laws of physics; mind controls the body, but the body can also influence the other wise rational mind
• Pineal gland
• I think, therefore I am

• Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1963
• Topic of graded potential

• Split-brain research
• Nobel Prize in Medicine

Led large school of neuroscience

• The most famous neurologist of all time - neuro doctrine
• Nobel Prize winner

• Italian
• Proposed the concept of electricity --> animal electricity in neuron and muscles

• Conducted experiment on the speed of electric signal along the nerve
• Named Action Potential

• Proposed change in membrane potential
• Charge in concentration in ions across the two sides of the membrane

Used the giant axon from a squid (invertebrate)

Reported their study on the giant axon of squid

Theory of membrane Equilibria