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what is the basic functional unit of the human body
the cell are the basic and anatamical unit of the body
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what is the formation of the cell membrane?
it is a phospholipid bi-layer embedded with protein
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what are the functions of the intergraded proteins on the membrane?
these proteins can act as receptors channels, pumps, or transporters
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what is the nuclear envelope
it's a double nuclear membrane (outter and inner) which seperates the nucleus from the cytoplasm. it contains pores which control the movement of substances in and out of the nucleus.
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what materials contain in the nucleus
it contains DNA arranged in chromosomes
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what is euchromatin?
more extended from (light) DNA, which is potentially transcriptionally active
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what is heterochromatin?
highly condensed (dark) and transcrptionally inactive
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where is protein transcription happen?
in the nucleoli
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what form chromatin complex?
Chromatin is a complex of DNA, Histone proteins, nonhistone proteins
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what do diploid, haploid,polyploidy, & aneuploid mean?
- Diploid-a pair or 2 sets of of homologous chromosomes
- Haploid- one set of chromosomes
- polyploidy- containe more than 2 sets of homologous chromosomes
- aneuploid- have atypical chromosomal numbers
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what are cytoskeletons?
microfilaments, microtubules, & intermediate filaments
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what types of cytoskeletons have motor proteins?
microfilaments and microtubules
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what is the main function of the mitochondrium?
provides energy, ATP, that enables neighbor cells to work and body to function
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what cell organelle responses for protein synthesis?
the Rough endoplasmic reticulum
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what does the golgi apperatus do?
recieves synthetic product from the ER, modifies them, and exports them to a variety of destinations
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what is the main function of lysosome?
the contain enzymes that are required for the degrading of proteins and other organelles
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what is the main function of ribosomes?
protein synthesis. Ribosomes also move on the mRNA from 5 to 3
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what is the main function of peroxisomes?
- synthesis and degregation of hydrogen
- beta oxidation
- phospholipid exchange
- bile acid synthesis
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how many cell junctions are there?
there are 4 cell junctions
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which of the cell junction has communication between the cells?
gap junction
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what is the main function of the microvilli?
they function to increase the cell surface are available for absorption
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what is the main function of cilia?
move back and forth to propel fluid and particles in one direction. important in clearing mucus from the resiratory tract
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what is the cell cycle?
process of division (mitosis) where the cell will divide into 2 identicle parts, one for each daughter cell
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what does G0 stand for?
phase in which cells are dormat or not dividing
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what does G1 stand for?
also known as gap 1 but is the first stage of interphase
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what does S stand for?
Stands for synthesis. DNA is replicated
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what does M stand for?
Mitosis
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what are the functional divisions of the nervous system?
sensory and motor
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what are the anatomical divisions of the nervous system?
CNS & PNS
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which functional division is for autonomic nervous system?
Motor. ANS provides autonomic regulation of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glandular activity or secretions
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what is the difference between the nerve and the tract?
Nerve located in the PNS. They establish communication between brain and spinal cord centers and the sense organs and effectors
tracts located as fibers in PNS. axon bundles running in the spinal cord and brain. contain either sensory or motor signals
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what is the difference between the ganglion and nucleus?
group of similar neurons associate with connective tissue in the PNS is called ganglio
group of similar neurons in the CNS is called nucleus
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what kind of neuronal information do the dorsal and ventral roots carry seperatly?
Dorsal root carries sensory information to the spinal cord. Ventral root carries motor commands away from the spinal cord.
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what type of neurons is contained in the dorsal horn?
dominated by sensory neurons
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what type of neurons is contained in the ventral horns?
contains alpha and gamma motor neurons
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what are the 4 distinctive regions of a neuron?
dendrite, axon, soma, and terminal
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what is the main function of the soma?
metabolic center of the cell
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what are the nissil bodies?
highly developed ER that plays a role in protein synthesis
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what is the main function of the dendrite?
extends the cell body, they are the points at which nerve impulses are recieved by the cell
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what is the main function of the axon?
transmits impulses at the distal end
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what is the main function of the terminal?
it is where nerve connection is formed
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where are the neurotransmitters synthesized?
synthesized within the axon terminal
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how does a neuron recieve information?
through the dendrite
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how does a neuron send information?
it sends info through the axon
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what is the action potential?
process in which the electrical membrane potential of a cell rapidly rises and falls
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on which parts of the neuron does the action potential occur?
the junction gaps between the cell body and axon known as the hillock
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what is the axonal transportation?
transportation of macromolecules from and to the cell body to the synapses
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is the axonal transportation the same as the action potential?
no. axonal transportation takes place inside the axon and action potential takes place at the hillock
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where does the axonal transportation happen?
inside the Axon
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where is the axohillock?
located at a junction between the cell body and the axon itself
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where is the beginning of the action potential?
it is initiated at the hillock
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what structure is formed by the terminal?
the synapse
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what is the presynaptic membrane?
the part of the cell membrane of an axon terminal that faces the cell membrane of the meuron or muscle fiber with which the axon terminal establishes a synapse
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what substance will release from the terminal? to where?
releases electrical impulses from one neuron to the next
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what are the typical types of neurons?
sensory, motor, & interneurons
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where do you expect to see bipolar neurons?
in the sensory pathways (for sight smell hearing and balance)
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where are the typical pseudounipolarneurons?
Dosal Root Ganglion. the primary general sensory neurons are usually
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where are the typical multipolar neurons?
in the motor neurons. most common.
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what is the name of chemicals released by neurons?
based on different neurotransmitters released, such as cholinergic neurons.
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what forms a myelin sheath in the PNS?
Schwann cell, one cell one segment one axon; one axon multi cells
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what forms the myelin sheath in the CNS?
Oolgodendrocyte, one cell multi sheath; different branches of one cell can envelope segments of several axons.
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what is the node of Ranvier?
Gaps along the pathway of myeline sheath
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how many typical types of synapses
- there are 3. Axosomatic (2nd most commn)
- Axodendritic (Most common)
- Axoaxonic junction (rare)
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describe 3 coverings of a nerve
- nerves have external fibrous coat of dense conn. tissue (epineurium)
- each bundle is surrounded by the perineurium
- within the perineurium sheath run the schwann cell and their enveloping connective tissue,(Endoneurium)
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what are the Glia?
more abundant in the brain than in the neurons. play a metabolic and supporting role for the neurons
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does glia transmit the action potential?
NO
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what is the main function of astrocyte?
they bind neurons to capillaries and the the pia matter. they also initiate the formation of the blood brain barrier
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where are the epedymal cells?
they are cells which line the ventricles of the brain?
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which type of glia participate in the blood brain barrier?
the astrocytes
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how many types of muscles are there?
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what are the characteristics of skeletal muscles?
- vouluntary
- it is sarcolemma
- they are striated, with bands of muscle fibers made of actin and myosin
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what are the characteristics of smooth muscles?
- microscopically smooth, with irregular bundles
- may be innervated by one nerve or multiple nerves, depending on function
- involuntary
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what are the characterisitcs of the cardiac muscle?
- straited like skeletal
- the striation join together in bundles that allow coordinated action
- involuntary and autorhythmic
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what is slow twitch muscle fibers?
fatigue resistant fibers. generate ATP aerobically
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what is fast twitch muscle fiber?
- somewhat fatigue reistant, and generate ATP aerobically
- type 11B are fatigable fibers. generate ATP anerobically
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what is the neuromuscular joint?
the place where the nerve meets the muscle or another nerve
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what is a motor unit
innervation of the motor neuron. composed of a motor neuron and the muscle fibers it supplies
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what forms the striate in the skeletal muscle?
it has striated apperance because of the repeating structure of the muscle. there are many myofibrils, each one of which is made up of repeating units called muscle sarcomeres
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what forms intercalated discs in cardiac muscles?
intercalated discs represent junctional complexes between adjacent cardiac muscles. made up of fascia adherentes, desmosome, and gap junction
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which type of muscles has the least capacity of regeneration?
cardiac muscle has no regenerative capacity. damage in the heart muscle are replaced by the connective tissue, forming myocardial scars
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what is purkinjes fiber?
they are fiber branches that extend from the artioventricular bundles. relays cardiac impulses to the ventricular cells causing the ventricles to contract.
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