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LAWS
- Bell Magende
- Boyle
- Charles
- Henry
- LaPlace
- Starling
- Hering Breuer
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Bell Megende
anterior spinal roots are MOTOR, posterior SENSORY
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Boyle
at constant temperature, a volume of gas varies inversely with pressure
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Charles
At constant pressure, a volume of gas varies directly with absolute pressure
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Henry
solubility of gas in a liquid is proportional to the pressure of the gas
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LaPlace
ventricular pressure depends on muscular tension, size and shape of the heart
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Starling
Cardiac output is directly proportional to diastolic filling
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Hering Breuer
limits respiratory excursion via the vagus nerve
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Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the cell and into the capillary where is is transported 3 ways:
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Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
1 of 3
1. dissolved carbon dioxide in the blood 7%
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Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
2 of 3
2. in combination with hemoglobin 23%
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Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
3 of 3
3. as bicarbonate ions (HCO3) 70%
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Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
Bicarbonate
formed when carbon dioxide enters the red blood cell and combines with water via CARBONIC ANHYDRASE to form CARBONIC ACID which dissociates into HYDROGEN AND HCO3 ions. the HCO3 diffuses out of the RBC into plasma while CL ions diffuse into the RBC (chloride shift)
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Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
Bicarbonate
- Carbonic Anhydrase --> CO2 + RBC = Carbonic Acid
- Carbonic Acid splits --> H + HCO3
- HCO3 out of RBC into Plasma
- Chloride into RBC
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Oxygen
97% is carried by hemoglobin 20ml O2 per 100 ml of blood
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Nerve endings
- Krause
- Ruffini
- Meissner
- Pacinian
- Merkel's
- Free nerve endings
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Meissner
touch and pressure
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Lung volumes and capacities
- Tidal volume (TV)
- Inspiratory reserve (IR)
- Expiratory reserve (ER)
- Residual volume (RV)
- Inspiratory capacity
- Functional residual capacity
- Vital capacity
- Total Lung volume
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Inspiratory reserve (IR)
3000ml
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Expiratory reserve (ER)
1100ml
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Residual volume (RV)
1200ml
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Functional residual capacity
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Vital capacity
IR+ER+TV=4600ml
- IR=3000ml
- ER=1100ml
- TV=500ml
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Medulla oblongata
Has inspiratory and expiatory control centers
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Pons
APNEUSTIC center and PNEUMOTAXIC center. Limits the duration of inspiration, but increases respiratory rate.
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Chemical control of Respiration
Chemoreceptors in Medulla Oblongata excited by CO2 and H and peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies which are sensitive to PO2.
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Respiration (stimulation)
- increase in PCO2 and H
- decrease in PO2
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Respiration (inhibited)
- decrease in PCO2 and H
- increase in PO2
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Metabolic Acidosis
- (diabetes mellitus)
- Increase in ketone bodies, respiration stimulated (Kussmaul's breathing) causing a "blow off" of CO2 decreasing H concentration.
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Metabolic Alkalosis
- (vomiting)
- H concentration decreased, respiration inhibited, caused increase in PCO2, increases blood H concentration.
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Hyperventilation
causes RESPIRATORY ALKALOSIS: because decreased H concentration, low PCO2. Rebreathing expired air increased PCO2 returns blood Ph normal.
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Respiratory acidosis
Low Ph of blood due to HYPOVENTILATION
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Hormones
Posterior pituitary
Neurohypophysis. Neuroectoderm connected to the base of the brain via supraoptic hypophyseal tract
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Hormones
Posterior pituitary (ADH)
Vasopressin acts upon the kidney to reabsorb water in the collecting duct. Increases blood pressure. Decreased ADH produced POLYDYPSIA and POLYURIA seen in DIABETES INSIPIDUS.
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Hormones
Posterior pituitary (Oxytocin)
Responsible for milk let down and uterine contractions during labor and after birth.
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary
"Rathke's Pouch" Influenced by negative feedback or releasing factors produced in the hypothalamus.
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary (GH)
- Somatotrophin: Stimulated by growth hormone releasing factor from the hypothalamus.
- GHRF: responsible for stimulating the release of growth hormone and the release of an inhibitory hormone called somatostatin--> decreased produces dwarfism, increase produces giantism.
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(ACTH)
Corticotropin: stimulates the adrenal gland
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(TSH)
Thyrotropin: stimulates thyroid
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(FSH)
- stimulates follicle in preparation for ovulation in females
- stimulates sperm production in males
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(LH)
- Responsible for ovulation in females
- Regulates testosterone production
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(Prolactin)
Stimulates milk production post partum
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(Pars intermedia)
melanocyte stimulating hormone
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(Thyroid)
Calcitonin
takes calcium out of blood and into bone. made by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid.
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(Thyroid)
Thyroxine
Major hormone from the thyroid to regulate metabolism
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(Thyroid)
Triiodothyronine
Chemically more active than thyroxine. important in maintaining basal metabolism
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(Thyroid)
decreased and increased
- Decreased thyroid hormones produce a cretin in children or myxedema in adults.
- Increase produces increased metabolic processes, increased sympathetics and may lead to Graves disease.
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(Parathyroid)
increases blood calcium, decreases reabsorption of phosphates
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(Parathormone)
Takes calcium out of the bone and into the blood stream. Important in many enzyme reaction and for contraction of muscles. Decrease produces tetany or muscle twitches. Increase seen in Osteitis Fibrosa Cystica. Increase in the blood produce increases in the kidney.
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(Adrenal cortex)
- Zona Glomerulosa
- Zona Fasciculata
- Zona Reticularis
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Zona Glomerulosa
Aldosterone (salt)
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Zona Fasciculata
Cortisol (sugar)
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Zona Reticularis
Androgen (sex)
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(Aldosterone)
A mineralcorticoids that reduces sodium excretion by the kidneys and increases potassium excretion
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(Cortisol)
A glucocorticoids that controls metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(Adrenal medulla)
Medulla is derived from neural crest cells. Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine. Acts as postganglionic sympathetic nervous system
Epinephrine and norepinephrine both secreted in response to sympathetic stimulation
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(Somatostain)
Made in hypothalamus to inhibit growth hormone. Made by delta cells of the pancrease to inhibit insulin and gulcagon in the pancrease, gastrin in the gastric mucosa, secretin in the intestinal mucosa and renin in the kidneys.
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Hormones
Anterior Pituitary(Somatomedin)
A peptide formed in the liver and other tissues which mediates the effects of growth hormone on cartilage
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Hormones
Ovaries (Estrogen)
Produced by ovarian follicle after stimulation by FSH. Thickens the lining of the uterus in the proliferative phage of the menstrual cycle (1st stage).
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Hormones
Ovaries (Progesterone)
Produced by the corpus luteum after ovulation. Increases thickness of the uterine lining to make it ready for implantation. Increases in (2nd stage) of the menstral cycle called Secretory stage. Also responsible for increase in body temperature called Thermogenic Hormone.
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Hormones
Testosterone
produced in intersitital cells of Leydig in testes
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Hormones
Pancreas (Insulin)
Secreted by the beta cells in response to glucose
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Hormones
Pancreas (Glucagon)
Responsible for increasing blood sugar
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Digestion
Myenteric plexus
Auerbach's plexus. in muscular layer of digestive tract for GI mobility
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Digestion
Meissner's plexus
In the submucosa to promote secretions
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Digestion
Stomach (Chief cells)
- Pepsinogen in the presence of HCL becomes pepsin.
- Rennin clots milk
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Digestion
Stomach (Parietal cells)
Produce HCL and intrinsic factor
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Digestion
Stomach (Gastrin)
Helps with protein digestion
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Digestion
Duodenum (Cholecystokinin)
a hormone responsible for contraction of the gall bladder when fat is present.
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Digestion
Duodenum (Secretin)
stimulates the flow of pancreatic juice and decreases gastric motility
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Digestion
Pancrease
lipase, amylase, maltase
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Digestion
Pancreas (Trypsinogen)
- activated by enterokinase in intestine
- Trypsin and chymotrypsin split protein
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Cardiac Conduction System
SA node
Pacemaker. Self excitatory to the internodal pathways to the AV node (delays impulse) the to the AV bundle (of His) to the Purkinje system which conducts the impulse to the ventricles.
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Cardiac Conduction System
P wave
atrial depolarization
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Cardiac Conduction System
QRS wave
ventricular depolarization (atrial repolarization)
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Cardiac Conduction System
T wave
ventricular repolarization
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Diastole
period of relaxation
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Systole
produces contraction
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First heart sound
closure of AV valves during isometric contraction
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Second heart sound
closure of the aortic and pulmonic valves during isometric relaxation at the beginning of diastole
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Dicrotic notch
the small downward deflection on the arterial pulse or pressure contour, immediately following the closure of the semilunar valves sometimes used as a marker for the end of systole or ejection period S-T
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Starling's Law
Cardiac output is directly proportional to diastolic filling
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Baroreceptors
In the carotid and aortic arches, respond to changes in blood pressure
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ARMS and PRTS
occurs in diastole
- A. aortic
- R. regurgitation
- M. mitral
- S. stenosis
- P. pulmonic
- R. regurgitation
- T. tricuspid
- S. stenosis
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Muscle Physiology
Relaxed muscle
Calcium is stored in the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum. the calcium in the sarcoplasm is low, the ATP is attached to the myosin crossbridges (this prevents the combining of actin and myosin).
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The Nerve Impulse Fires
This causes:
calcium to be released at the myoneural junction which causes ACETYLCHOLINE release to the T tubules
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Contraction of muscle
(After T tubules) This causes:
SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM to release CALCIUM. CALCIUM activates MYOSIN. MYOSIN breaks ATP to ADP plus P.
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Contraction of muscle
(After ATP to ADP plus P)
CALCIUM binds with TROPOMYOSIN, TROPONIN leaving ACTIN free. ACTIN and MYOSIN combine. ACTINOMYOSIN reacts producing a contraction.
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Relaxation of muscle
CHOLINESTERASE destroys ACETYLCHOLINE.
Calcium goes back to the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the myosin becomes inactivated.
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Relaxation of muscle
(After inactivation)
- ADP goes back to ATP
- ATP binds once again with MYOSIN
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Relaxation of muscle
(After ATP binds with Myosin)
Tropomyosin-troponin reattaches to actin and bridges separate to reform thus we have relaxation.
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Neurophysiology
- Action Potential
- Passive transport
- Active transport
- Absolute Refactory Period
- Relative Refractory Period
- Rheobase
- Chronaxie
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Neurophysiology
Action Potential
- Inside the cell is K+ and Mg++
- Outside the cell is Na+ and Cl-
- Stimulation increases membrane permeability to sodium
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Neurophysiology
Passive Depolarization
- Na+ goes into the cell by diffusion creating a change in electronegativity.
- K+ goes out of the cell
- Cl- goes into the cell
- Decrease membrane permeability to Na+, K and Cl
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Neurophysiology
Active Transport
- Sodium goes out of the cell
- Potassium goes into the cell
- Repolarization occurs due to increased potassium conductance.
- Moves back to resting membrane potential.
- Resting membrane potential: muscle -90MV and neuron -70MV
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Neurophysiology
Absolute refractory period
When a second action potential can not be elicited
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Neurophysiology
Relative refractory period
When a second action potential can be elicited, but must be greater stimulus than the first
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Neurophysiology
rheobase
minimum current strength for an action potential to occur
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Neurophysiology
Chronaxie
time needed using 2x the rheobase for excitation
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