Anatomy Exam 2 Review.txt

• keratin intermediate filaments that make up tonofibrils 
• found in stratum spinosum

• found in the stratum spinosum. 
• These cells act as macrophages and engulf and digest pathogens.

• found in the stratum granulosum. Contain glycolipids
• which make the epidermis water-proof. 

• found in the stratum granulosum.
• contain the tough, insoluble protein, keratin, which makes the epidermis tough and abrasive-resistant.

the structural units of chromatin, packages chromatin

• ·      A pentose sugar (deoxyribose or
• ribose).

·      A nitrogen-containing base – A, G, C, T, or U

·      A phosphate group

the other DNA strand not used in transcription. 

• simple squamous epithelium
• lines blood vessels, circulatory system

• serous membrane
• Main purpose is to create a lubricating fluid that is released between layers.

• not found in humans, secretory product
• accumulates on the apical side of the cell’s cytoplasm.
• That part of the cytoplasm then pinches off, releasing the product into the lumen of the gland.

• cell secretes products via exocytosis
• eccrine sweat glands (regular sweat)
• apocrine sweat glands (yellowish, puberty)

• The cell accumulates secretory product within
• its cytoplasm.  
• The cell then dies and its products are released into the lumen.  
• A new layer of cells are ready to take its place.
• sebaceous oil glands

touch receptors found in the papillary layer

• fingerprints
• increase friction and gripping power
• we leave behind fingerprints because a film of sweat is left behind by the ridges.

• dense irregular connective tissue
• touch receptors for deep pressure (Pacinian corpuscles)
• stretch marks

• found at the junction of the epidermis and dermis.
• acts as light touch receptors

• protection from infection
• protection from UV radiation (melanocytes)
• temperature regulation
• metabolism (synthesis of vitamin D)
• receives stimuli from the environment

• deep pressure receptors
• found in reticular layer

• protection
• secretion
• absorption
• filtration
• excretion
• sensory reception

finder hair of children and adult females

the coarser, longer hair of the eyebrows, armpits, and pubic region.

• In the middle is the medulla, which has large cells and air spaces. Only part of the hair that has soft keratin.
• Outside that is the cortex, which has several layers of flattened cells.
• The outermost cuticle is formed from a single layer of cells that overlap one another like shingles on a roof.
• Hair conditioners smooth out the rough surface of the cuticle.
• The cuticle tends to wear away at
• the tip of the hair shaft, allowing the fibrils in the cortex and medulla to frizz out, resulting in split ends. 

baldness

• only the epidermis is affected
• sunburns
• heals in 2-3 days 

• injures the epidermis and the upper region of the dermis. 
• will see blisters.
• will heal in 3-4 weeks if infection is prevented.

• All layers of the skin are affected.
• The burned spot will not be painful. 
• Skin grafting is necessary.
• Most dangerous because of the patient’s aversion to infection and fluid loss. 

• occurs in the stratum basale
• most common type of skin cancer and least dangerous

• involves keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum. 
• grows rapidly, second most common type

• proliferation of the melanocytes
• most malignant, highly metastatic and resistant to chemotherapy
• ABCDE

osteons

• shaped like a sesame seed
• a short bone that is formed in a tendon
• ex: patella

• the shaft (middle) of the long bone.
• Made of a thick collar of compact bone that surrounds a medullary cavity.

• ends of the long bones
• have spongy bone inside

• covers the entire bone
• outer layer is the fibrous layer (dense irregular CT)
• inner layer is osteogenic layer, has osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteogenic cells.

• the inner membrane separating the compact bone from the spongy bone. 
• Contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts.

• tiny canals that connect the lacunae to each other and to the central canal.
• Allows for transfer of substances from one osteocyte to the next (via gap junctions). 

the concentric tubes in the osteon

forms the skull bones and the clavicles

• forms all the bones in the body except the clavicles and skull bones
• starts out as hyaline cartilage.

• released under hypocalcemic conditions
• calcium in blood is too low
• stimulates the osteoclasts to release calcium from the bones

• 1. Growth zone - chondroblasts create hyaline cartilage
• 2. Hypertrophic zone - old chondrocytes start to deteriorate
• 3. Calcification zone - calcium phosphate salts move towards the epiphyseal plate and chondrocytes will die
• 4. Ossification zone - osteoblasts move into the deteriorating hyaline cartilage stalactites. secrete new bone tissue on the diaphyseal face of the epiphyseal plate.

maintains levels of calcium homeostasis

• released under hypercalcemic conditions
• levels of calcium in blood are too high
• stimulates osteoblasts to produce bone tissue

immovable joints

slightly moveable joints

freely moveable joints

sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses

• elongated bursae that wrap around tendons to reduce friction.
• Present in joints that are used very often.

• flattened fibrous bags of synovial fluid associated with synovial joint.
• Also reduces friction.

discs of fibrocartilage that improve the fit at a synovial joint. Reduces friction as the joint moves.

• movement along one or two planes
• intertarsal joints

elbow bone

• vertebrae between C1 and C2. 
• lets you rotate on a plane

• allows us to motion yes.
• example is wrist joint.

only saddle joint in body is the metacarpal joint of thumb. 

• A synovial joint has a two-layered articular capsule, which has a fibrous capsule on the outer membrane and the synovial membrane internally. 
• Inside the articular capsule is the joint cavity, which contains synovial fluid.