Macroevolution (Exam 3)

a single population gets divided by a physical barrier; the seperated populations diverge and become different species 

some type of factor blocks gene flow, effectively isolates the population even though they are in the same location

A species is a population or group of population whose members have the potential to interbreed with one another in nature to produce viable, fertile offspring, but who can't produce fertile offspring with members of another species 

• viability - aborted, doesn't develop
• fertility - produces sterile organism

barriers that keep 2 different species from coming together and producing a zygote

zygote is formed but the offspring are not viable / fertile 

• 1. Habitat Isolation
• 2. Behavioral Isolation
• 3. Temporal Isolation
• 4. Mechanical Isolation
• 5. Gametic Isolation

• 1. Reduced Hybrid Viability - zygote produced, embryo is weak and aborted, 
• 2. Reduced Hybrid Fertility - hybrid is viable but infertile
• 3. Hybrid Breakdown - 1st generation hybrid is viable and fertile, 2nd generation is infertile 

• 1. asexual organisms
• 2. fossils
• 3. too rigid

group organisms that look alike together

organize groups according to their ecological niche

identifying species based on their evolutionary history

• 1. are not cells
• 2. can't make ATP
• 3. can't reproduce themselves 
• 4. considered intracellular parasites

• 1. they cause disease 
• 2. take advantage of the way they enter cells

disease that affects a large number of people at the same time

how much damage a virus causes

• AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
• HIV - Human Immunodeficiency Virus

• 1. Nonenveloped - capsid, genome
• 2. Enveloped - envelope (phospholipid bilayer), capsid, genome

• Enveloped - viruses made inside host cell, bud off host cell taking some plasma membrane
• Nonenveloped - viruses made inside host cell, host cell ruptures as viruses are released

virus infects the cell taking over cell machinery causing it to make new viruses, cell ruptures and releases new viruses

virus infects the host cell and inserts its genome into the host cell's genome, everytime the host cell divides it copies and passes on the viral genome

• 1. Bacteria 
• 2. Archaea "extreme bacteria" 

• 1. Spherical - cocci
• 2. Rod-Shaped - bacilli
• 3. Spiral - Shaped - Spirilla

• plants - cellulose
• fungi - chitin
• bacteria - peptidoglycan

• positive: pick up gram stain and appear purple, thick layer of peptidoglycan, easy to kill with antibiotics
• negative: don't pick up gram stain and appear pink, has outer membrane surrounding thin layer of peptidoglycan

sticky layer outside cell wall, allows cells to stick together in a colony, cells can stick to their substrate

surface appendages of various types that hold cells together during conjugation

• 1. flagella - long whip - like structures
• 2. spiral through environment using structures similar to flagella
• 3. glide - secrete a slimy substance and use structure on the bottom of the cell to glide 

move towards or away from a stimulus

move towards or away from a chemical 

move towards or away from light, photosynthetic organisms

temperature, pH, salt, nutrient sources

environmentally resistant stage

• phototrophs - get energy from light
• chemotrophs - get energy from chemicals in the environment

understand how to mix terms (photoheterotrophs)

• autotrophs - get carbon from Carbon Dioxide
• heterotrophs - get carbon from organic molecules

understand how to mix terms (chemoautotrophs)

must have oxygen, aerobic respiration, respiration in presence of oxygen

may prefer an anerobic environment, but can live in an aerobic environment

must live in an oxygen-free environment, anaerobic respiration, respiration without oxygen

thrive in hot environments 

live in high saline environment

release methane as they gain energy

• 1. gut of animals (esp. ones with high cellulose diet)
• 2. swamps and marshes where soil is saturated with water and therefore low in oxgen
• 3. humans use them in sewage treatment plants

photoautotrophic and chemoheterotrophic

• 1. Ingestive Protists - "animal-like" protists; protozoans 
• 2. Absorptive Protists - "fungi-like" protists; slime molds
• 3. Photosynthetic Protists - "plant-like" protists; algae

decompose dead water organisms

plant pathogens, Irish Potato Famine

turn water red, cause fish kills, toxins can accumulate in shellfish, caused by pollution of nitrates and phosphates

dinoflagellates, diatoms, multicellular (seaweed)

body of seaweed

• Blade - leaf-like structure
• Stipe - stem-like structure
• Holdfast - suctions to substrate

• Red Algae (Rhotophyta): have red pigment, pigment is higher in concentration as plant is deeper in ocean
• Brown Algae (Phaeophyta): brown to brown-green in color, includes kelps, carrageenan (red algae) / alginate (brown algae)
• Green Algae (Chlorophyta): grass-green in color, closest living relatives to plants 

cuts number of chromosomes in half

process where cells are cloned 

• Gametophytes(n) - gametes(n) - mitosis 
• Sporophytes(2n) - spores(n) - meiosis

sporophyte and gametophytes have same form

sporophyte and gametophytes have different forms

Aboveground portion of plant

Belowground portion of plant

• 1. Move from aquatic to terrestrial environment, (a) protect spores using sporopollenin (b) protect gametes by enclosing them in gametangia
• 2. Evolution of Vascular Tissue
• 3. Evolution of Seeds
• 4. Evolution of Flowering Plants

general term for container that has gametes

• Xylem: moves water / minerals from roots to other parts
• Phloem: sugars and nutrients from leaves to where needed 

Protective Coat, Embryo, Food Supply

• Bryophytes, Dominant Generation Gametophyte 
• 
• 

• Microspores: antheridium, male gametophyte 
• Megaspores: archegonium, female gametophyte

clusters of sporangia

• Lycophyta: club mosses, ground pines; NOT MOSSES
• Spenophyta: horsetails, scouring rushes; silica in cell walls
• Pterophyta: Ferns

homosporous

peak of seedless vascular plant diversity, became our coal deposits

Plants, with naked seeds, vascular tissue and dominant sporophyte generation (cone plants); male - pollen, female - female gametophyte, heterosporous

• Staminate: male cones (pollen)
• Ovulate: female cones (eggs)

• Domain Eukarya, Kingdom Plantae
• 1. Phylum Cycadophyta: cycads, look like palm treesbut have large cone in middle
• 2. Phylum Ginkgophyta: Ginkgo biloba, landscaping
• 3. Phylum Gnetophyta: Gnetum sp. 
• 4. Phylum Coniferophyta: "evergreens", sequoia

• 1. Interbreed, be same species
• 2. Speciation, can't interbreed
• 3. Form a Stable Hybrid