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perception
process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us
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selective attention
- size
- intensity
- novelty
- motion
- repetition
- out of context
- innate drives to reinforce self concept
- anticipations of future events
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confirmation bias
tendency to screen information that is contrary to our vlaues and assumptions, already formed theory
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functions of emotional markers
- store information in memory
- reproduce the same emotion when we then think abou this information
- make quick judgments of good and bads in interpretations
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categorical thinking
organizing people and objects into preconceived categories that are stored in our long-termed memories
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Perceptual grouping principles
- perceptiual groupings are based on...
- Identifying patterns
- Similarity or proximity
- Cognitive closure: filling in missing pieces
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the above process operates very quickly and without our awareness, based on very thin slices of information
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mental models
visual or relational images in our mind that represent the external world
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pros and cons about mental model
- pro: help us quickly make sense of the world
- con: block recognition of new/ unfamiliar information
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minimize the perceptual problems with mental models
- work with people from diverse backgrounds
- constantly questions the mental models
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social identity theory
explains how we perceive other people by categorization, homogenization and differentiation
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homogenization
ascribing similar characteristics to people within a group
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differentiation
assigning more favourable characteristics to our own group
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stereotyping
Develop social categories and assign traits to people based on their group membership
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what affects stereotypes?
- personal experience
- cultural upbringings
- media image
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why do we have stereotypes
- strong need for cognitive closure
- easier to remember features of different people
- enhances self-concept(differentiation)
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problems with stereotyping
- inaccurate
- discrimination
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attribution process
- Attribute causes of events to people(internal) or situation(external)
- Assign credit or blame
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why is attribution process important
it forms cause-effect relationship, hence affecting how we respond to others' behaviors
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attribution rules(internal)
- high consistency
- low distinctiveness
- low consensus
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fundamental attribution error
tendency to see the person rather than the situation as the main cause of that person's behavior
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self-serving bias
tendency to attribute favourable outcomes to internal factors and our failures to external factors
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self-fulfillig prophecy
the perceptual process in which our expectations about another person cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations
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contingencies of self-serving prophecy
- At the beginning of a relationship
- When several people have similar expectations about the person
- When the person has low past achievement
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reason for self-fulfilling prophecy
- expectations motivates employees
- more skills and knowledge are provided for employees because of the expectations
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other perceptual error-halo effect
Overall positive impression based on one positive characteristic
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other perceptual error-primacy effect
Overall impression of person based on firstimpressions
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other perceptual error-recency effect
Evaluation of person based on most recentimpression
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other perceptual error-False-consensus effect
Overestimating the extent to which others hold similar beliefs
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methods to improve perception, eg less stereotyping
- know ourselves(in order to be more open-minded and nonjudgmental)
- empathy
- meaning interaction
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what is meaningful interaction
- Be close and frequent
- Involve task with shared goals
- Participants have equal status
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learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior (orbehavior tendency) that occurs as a result ofa person’s interaction with the environment
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tacit knowledge
embedded in our actions and way of thinking and is transmitted through experience and observation
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behavior modification/operant conditioning/reinforcement theory
- building connnections between antecedents(cue) and consequences of behavior
- Completely dependent on the environment, thinkg is unimportant
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contingencies of reinforcement
sth that maintain, increases or reduces the probability that a behavior is repeated
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positive reinforcement
rewarding desired behavior
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negative reinforcement
removing unpleasant consequence when a desired behavior occurs
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punishment
punish undesirable behavior
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exinction
as there are no consequence to a behavior, the behavior decreases to zero(do-nothing strategy)
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pros and cons of punishment
- pros: maintain a sense of fairness
- cons: generate negative emotions towards the punisher
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pros and cons of continuous reinforcement(positive reinforcement)
- pros: good schedule for learning
- cons:Rapid extinction when stopped
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pros of variable ratio schedule
Highly resistant to extinction
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why must behavior reinforcement programs be run infrequently and for a short duration
prevent rewards from ecoming entitlement(incentivizing behavior)
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social learning theory
Learning by observing; stress the importance of perception in learning
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ways of social learning
- Behavioral modeling(attentional, retention, motor reproduction)
- Learning behavior consequences
- Self-reinforcement(reward yourself when a goal is completed)
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Kolb’s experiential learning model
- reflective observation, active experimentation
- -->concrete experience
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ways to maintain learning orientation
- value new knowledge
- encourage employees to take reasonable risks(reward experimentation)
- recognize mistakes as part of learning
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knowlege management in organizations-acquisition
- become aware of new trends form clients or suppliers
- hiring individuals
- acquiring compnaies
- experimenttion
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knowlege management in organizations-sharing
- computer intranets and digital repositories of knowledge
- informal online or face-to-face communication(social larning and experiential learning)
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knowlege management in organizations-use
staff recognize the availability and freedom to use knowledge(corporate culture)
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