ANT Exam #2

Evolution above the species level.

The process of forming new species.

Some speciation event -> 2 different species due to a specific event

no speciation event, changes occur over time

• A model of macroevolutionary change that suggests evolution occurs via long periods of stability or stasis punctuated by preiods of rapid change
• a change -> same -> change -> same

traits shared with an ancestor

• a trait that's not in an ancestor
• what makes a species unique

In biological evolution, a process by which unrelated populations develop similarities to one another due to similar function rather than shared ancestry

According to the theory of plate tectonics, the movement of continents embedded in underlying plates on the Earth's surface in relation to one another over the history of life on Earth

Reproduction  involving the production of relatively few offspring with high parental investment in each

Reproduction involving the production of large numbers of off-spring with relatively low parental investment in each

Rapid diversfication of an evolving population as it adapts to a variety of available niches.

• A theory for primate evolution that proposes that life in the trees was responsible for enhanced visual acuity and manual dexterity in primates
• first primates, a tail is helpful in trees, good depth perception, mobile shoulders

• A theory for primate evolution that proposes that hunting behavior in tree-dwelling primates was responsible for their enhanced visual acuity and manual dexterity
• Cartmill, how acquire food, diet(insects)

• Paleozioc: ancient life- 540mya-248mya
• Mesozioc: middle life- 248mya-65mya; time of dinos and reptiles
• Cenozoic: recent life- 65mya-present; all the changes in primates

• 65 mya
• Archaic primates (Dental Primates) Plesiadapis 
• a change in the total environment; ex) fruit trees
• total shift

• first primate
• big incisors
• only trait to make it a primate is its molars (primates have 4 cusps(hypocone))
• not a true primate = dental primate- 75 different species

• 55 mya
• Primates of modern aspect; Adapid/Omomyid

• Omomyids: smaller; found in Wyoming=200 different species- related to tarsiers
• Adapids: found in Europe (France), N. America, and Asia; lemur like
• Eosimias: dawn monkey; foot bone is changing (monkey like); similar to baboons; starts to look like monkey

• 32 adult teeth; divided in 4 quadrants
• Dental Formula: 2.1.2.3

• 35mya
• First Anthropoids; Aegyptopithecus
• Old World Monkey, Great Apes

• Northern Egypt
• Was lush and tropical

• found in Egypt; northern
• walks on 4 legs (like a OWM)
• has steriostopic vision
• have a 5-y pattern
• monkey with ape teeth

• 22.5mya
• Radiation of apes; Proconsul, Sivapithecus Dryopithecus
• more apes than any other time period; golden age of apes

• Europe and Africa become connected by land bridge
• -> the Mediterranean Sea
• emmigration of animals

• did not have a tail
• teeth like an ape
• proto-African Ape
• 17-12mya
• transition between quadraped and knuckle walkers

• found in Europe
• 17-6mya
• younger than proconsul
• precursor to lesser apes

• 12-7mya
• larger and more robust
• has thick enamel
• precursor to arangutans
• Ramapithecus: sexual dimorphism; smaller and slighter

• the largest of the apes
• very end of period
• vegetarian

• 5mya
• First Hominids; Austalopithecus

• Miocene and Pliocene/Pleistocene
• 22.5-5mya
• climate changes
• large # of monkeys
• shifts to grasslands

• canines large and projecting;
• upper canine honed against lower anterior premolar and lower canine; so worn on anterior and posterior sides 
• lower canine fits into diastema between upper canine and lateral incisor;
• anterior premolar is unicuspid;
• large canines in non-human primates used in male-male competition and in establishing dominance hierarchies

A space between the canines and other teeth allowing the large projecting canines to fit within the jaw.

• crest of bone on top of skull
• where muscles attach
• the chewing muscles (temporalis muscles)
• makes bone to accomodate muscle size
• found in men not always women

they appear 190mya in the Mesozioc era

Primates first appeared in the Paleocence epoch (65mya) in the Cenozioc era in W. Europe, Asia, Africa, Western N. America

Changing of the foot bone and dentition

• The first monkeys were Euprimates such as Omomyids, Adapids, and Eosimias. Others are Aegyptopithecus and Parapithecus
• The first apes are Proconsul, Dryopithecus, Sivapithecus, and Gigantopithecus

• human skull and orgutan jaw
• 1910 in Sussex, England
• large brain and an ape like jaw
• accepted as the missing link
• Fluorine dating showed this was a forgery

• comes first
• the pelvic bones altered to become bipedal

• there's a bowl shape to the human pelvis
• humans have a large sternum
• the location of where muscles attach is different
• human pelvis is wider and shorter
• non human pelvis is tall
• nonhumans havea more v shaped rib cage

• Hips and knee extension: primates can't fully extend hips; can't straighten knees; have stiff legged gait
• Chimps use different muscles: gluteal vs. thigh muscles
• Center of gravity: more forwawrd since the foramen magnum is back farther and they can't stand fully upright

• This is known as the carrying angle
• Humans have a valgus knee with an angle of about 11 degrees
• Chimps femur is in a straight line

• Arches form
• shorter heel bone
• toes get shorter and the big toe moves over

• Carrying hypothesis: free up hands for baby, food, etc.
• Display hypothesis: show dominance, intimidation, to attract a mate
• Vigilance Hypothesis: being able to see further by standing up made it easier to see predators
• Forage Hypothesis: come back to homebase; food for sex theory; focused on food
• Arboreal hypothesis: still used to sleep in trees; actively utilize trees; trees became sparse so bipedalism was useful
• Efficiency hypothesis: expand less energy; muscles are more efficient for walking
• Overheating hypothesis: quadrapeds get more sun than bipeds; bipeds get more wind than quadrapeds
• Aquatic ape hypothesis: we are swimming -> being bipedal

• found in 2002 in Chad
• 6-7mya
• reduced canine
• with the skull, able to tell brain size (like a modern chimp)
• locamotion = was bipedal, the foramen magun was tucked under head

• Have arm and leg bones, teeth, and jaw
• can get sense of locamotion - possibly bipedal
• found in 2001 in Chad
• 6mya

• have a fairly complete skeleton; 120cm tall(3'11"); 50kg(110lbs.)
• has grasping feet, long arms and fingers, a lot of time in trees
• 4.4mya
• Found in Ethiopia
• possible direct ancestor to humans
• similar to modern chimp

• Eastern part of Africa
• created 5mya
• Volcanoes(allows fossilization and good dating) -> mountains -> seperate South and West -> climate change -> adaptive radiation

• from tropical forests to Savannahs
• many trees -> sparse trees = adaptive radiation

• East Africa: Great Rift Valley; a lot of surface finds
• South Africa: found in caves

• Southern Apeman
• oldest of ALL australopithecines
• 4.2 - 3.9mya
• primitive dentition; ex) diastema (ape like teeth)
• lived in forested region
• spent most of it's time in trees, but bipedal

• sectorial premolar
• Diastema: space so canines can fit (as the animal closes mouth, it sharpens the canines)

• 3.9 - 2.9mya
• the "Lucy" specimen
• from Afar, Ethiopia
• short broad pelvis; bipedal
• titled femurs (valigus knee)
• in-line big toe
• small brain (like modern chimps)
• sagittal crest in males = sexual dimorphism

• Lucy: no grasping feet, short legs, long arms, small brain (1/3 of human), prognathic jaw(projecting), u-shaped jaw, broad pelvis, less centered foramen magnum, 3.5-4ft tall, curved fingers
• Human: face is flat and foramen magnum is tucked underneath

• Raymond Dart found skull in S. Africa in 1924 (no one believed him b/c finding was around time of piltdown hoax)
• 3.5 - 2 mya
• slight brain increase
• bipedal anatomy
• no sagittal crests
• less projecting face

• 2.5mya
• found in Ethiopia (same place and time as Lucy)
• more human like teeth
• possible direct ancestor

• new find in the last 3 years
• 2mya
• found in S. Africa
• possible direct ancestor

• hard object feeding = large sagittal crest, chewing muscles and teeth (have a grinding motion and big molars)
• flared zygomatic arch (allowing space for more powerful chewing muscle)
• dished face
• extreme postorbital constriction; don't have large frontal lobe
• woodland and open woodland habitat

• 1.8 - 1.0mya
• found in S. Africa (near Africanus)
• large cheek bones and sagittal crest
• get bigger the older the species gets --> extinction b/c they were too specialized and could not adapt

• 2.5 - 1.1mya
• found in E. Africa
• Zinjanthropus: 1.75mya; found in E. Africa

• Platyops: no severe cresting; found in Kenya; 3.5mya
• Aethiopicus: "the black skull"; 2.5 mya; found in Ethiopia

• Gracile: A. Anamensis - E. Africa; A. Afarensis - E. Africa; A. Africanus - S. Africa
• Robust: A. Robustus - S. Africa; A. Boisei - E. Africa; A. Aethiopicus - E. Africa

• 
• 600cc+ to be considered part of the genus homo

• how material should be organized
• always a bush, never a straight line
• Lumpers: sees all variations but lumps all species together
• Splitters: split up every fossil find into different species

• larger more rounded brain case
• bigger brain
• less projecting face
• smaller teeth
• much more efficient bipedalism (a shift in the pelvis)

height jump because of diet (bone marrow)

• "Handy Man" or "the skilled human"
• found among tools (600cc)
• first human to make tools
• 2.5mya
• Olduvai Gorge (E. Africa, Tanzania, near Great Rift Valley)
• 1970's: more intact and bigger brain size (775cc); a rounded vault; a small brow ridge; no canines

Lower Paleolithic- Stone Age (2.6mya-200,000ya)

• Olduvai Gorge (near Lucy)
• 2.5-1.5mya
• found with H. Habilis, A. Boisei, and other australopiths
• butchering sites
• not hunting but scavenging
• quarrying sites
• no evidence of homebase = traveling around

• use stone to hit another and flake off rock
• use the flake
• not local stones (use particular rock) therefore, planning
• use hammerstones

• Brain changes: handedness; help with dexterity; increased frontal lobe(area of reason); increase in brain size; Broca's(speech), Wernicke's(verbal understanding)
• Hand Changes: increased thumb length; decreased finger length; reduced curving- can use power grip, can use precision grip

• bias wrk until the 1960's
• gender roles assigned- not seen in apes, a modern concept
• tertiary scavengers: 3rd to meat; eat a lot of bone marrow; eat raw meat
• increase in brain due to increase in food quality

• 1.8mya-500,000ya
• a long for 1mil-1.5mil yrs
• seen punctuated equilibrium (1 mil yrs of little change)
• see first parts of culture (NO language yet)
• live in a stable environment
• Neck down is very modern
• pelvis is a btwn Lucy and Human
• prominent occipital bone
• no chin
• supraorbital torus- not a large brow ridge
• sagittal keel- not cause by muscle but by genetics
• low vault -not a tall skull -more foosball shaped
• brain size = 775-1200cc (modern range)
• shovel-shaped incisors; more modern in Asians

• Start in Africa, leave and disperse
• Koobi Fora: 1.8mya
• Lake Turkana: 1.47mya
• Olduvai Gorge: 1mya

• A lot of travel a long coastal region
• Republic of Georgia: 1.7mya
• Mojo Kerto (S.E. Asia): 1.8mya
• Jara: first H. Erectus to be found; 900,000ya
• Sanigran: 1.7-1mya
• Zoukoudian: 2nd H. Erectus to be found; 600,000-700,000ya
• Gran Dolina Fossils (Europe): 800,000-200,000

• Still lower paleolithic
• Acheulean Tradition: still use flakes; bifaced- use both sides of stone; hand axe; cleaver; standardized

• can see at night
• warmth
• can cook food --> reduction in tooth size
• protection from predators
• --> communication (gather around fire)

• higher quality diet = meat
• predation (migatory animals) -smaller gut
• more leisure time --> culture
• migration
• cooking? -helps with vegetable material

• H. Antesser: W. Europe (Spain)
• H. Heidelbergesis: Mauer jaw; 500,000ya
• Lumpers put with H. Erectus and splitters make another genus

• nerve to tongue larger: almost all language from the tongue
• smaller teeth
• smaller tongue

• 1.5mya
• from Olduvai Gorge (Lake Turkana)
• only 12 yrs old (tell by teeth)
• very complete
• over 5ft tall; not fully grown
• modern from neck down
• long bones not fused, therefore still growing

• Eugene DuBois: found 1st H. Erectus in Asia
• joined army as a doctor/anatomist; found in 1891 in Java
• found Pithecanthropus = type specimen
• an upright ape with a valgus knee
• vault, tooth, 2 long bones
• Individual all H. Erectus are compared against

• Sanigran
• found by Von Konigswald
• 1930's found up to 40 individuals
• 1.8mya-500,000ya

• Khoukoudian: Dragon Bone Hill; caves, many fossils
• Anatomist: Black and Weidenreich cont. wrk
• 1929-1934
• the "Peking Man" (only have cast b/c material was lost in WWII when the ship disappeared)
• 800,000-300,000ya

• most of Europe covered by glaciers
• primarily found near Mediterranean
• Gran Dolina fossils (living in caves)
• 800,000-200,000ya of H. Erectus; Neandrathals up to 35,000yrs ago
• 4 individuals fairly complete
• Found in Italy, Germany, and England

• predation: no real hunting, still scavening, possible following herds, driving a herd to swamps/cliff
• eating more meat; higher quality food
• smaller gut
• more leisure time --> tools
• migration
• began cooking
• tools found with animal bones; found in Spain; drove animals into swamp

• The Hobbit: big feet, short legs
• Found in 2002
• 3'6"
• found in E. Asia
• Insular Dwarfism: an isolated group= select for smaller individuals (dwarf elephants, rhinos)
• 95,000-17,000ya (when we start to see modern humans)
• rearrangement in wrist bones btwn H. Erectus and Neanderthals

• Sima de los huesos = pit of the bones
• found in Spain
• 1 layer: 28 individuals
• higih levels of trauma and really young (around 20) (men)
• 400,000-200,000ya
• pink quartz hand ax
• individuals transported and dumped
• animals bones 
• possible defleshing (cannibalism)

• H. Antecessor: Western Europe (Spain)
• H. Heidelbergensis: Mauer jaw; 500,000ya
• Lumpers put these with H. Erectus

• mix of H. Erectus, H. Sapiens, and Neanderthal features
• brain size: 1125-1390cc
• Modern level of sexual dimorphism (8% in humans)
• this pattern seen in Africa and Europe
• mix of cranial features
• Archaic H. Sapiens -> neanderthals -> modern human

• 400,000-28,000ya
• found in Africa, mid-lower Europe, alomg coastal regions of Asia
• some include neanderthals (lumpers)
• face reduced
• brain shape modern but have an elongated skull
• smaller teeth, therefore smaller jaw and chewing muscles
• decreased brow ridge

• splitter view
• 500,000-400,000ya
• transitional
• no chin (Mauer jaw)
• Europe
• 1100-1390cc brain size

• Archaic H. Sapiens or H. Heidelbergensis
• 1300cc brain size
• 600,000-125,000ya
• much variation found in African one's
• Bodo- large brow ridge
• Kabwe

• China and Dali
• 200,000-130,000ya
• India: 500,000-125,000ya
• 1150-1400cc brain size

• high vault of skull
• development of frontal lobe
• large brain- 1350cc average
• gracile body
• small brow ridge
• no occipital (keel, ridge)
• flat face
• smaller teeth and jaw
• CHIN!

• in Africa, Europe, Asia (a lot found in France)
• found with Acheulean tools
• prepare tool, remove flakes, uniform
• cultural change in tools
• used for scraping and cutting or to be shaped into a specialized tool

• multiple parts = put rock on stick (a spear)
• Hafted- wood, binding material, and stone tool
• knives
• spears
• 3 components: handle, stone, binding material

• Found in Europe and Middle East
• live there during the ice age
• increased layer of fat and thicker skin
• move around
• get name from first one being found in 1856 in Neander Valley
• 125,000-300,000ya
• a long brain case; forehead has not developed
• occipital bun- muscle attachments
• brain size of 1400-2400cc and an average of 1650cc
• brow ridge
• NO chin

• described as "dull, brutish, ape-like creatures" by Boule
• 1930's diorama = knuckle draggers = WRONG

• 1950's
• Atypical
• a lot of trauma; elderly (40+); severe arthritis; rickets- Vitamin D; tooth loss
• very hard on their bodies
• --> first ideas of community

Found  throughout Europe, the Middle East, living through ice ages

• Wallpuff- looked like Neanderthal but was a modern human
• apart of "us" or own species

• a lot more blood flow in Neanderthal; enlarged molars (at the root)
• the nose is big and wide (adaptation to the cold); the turbicles help warm air before it hits the lungs

Shanidar cave in Israel: use teeth so much they wear down; use teeth as a kind of tool

• Shorter
• thinker torso (b/c of cold)
• shorter limbs= less area exposed to cold
• a lot more muscular = stronger bones
• wider rib cage
• thicker layer of skin on the face
• heavier layers of fat

• Child from Teshik Tash: has occipital bun, therefore more genetic; a very large nose, therefore genetics, not function
• "Old Man" from La Chapelle: loss of teeth, occipital bun, large nose

• dwelt in caves and open air sites
• follows herd and animals
• return to several place but always moving around

• Bergmann's Rule: increasing body size in cold environment
• Allen's Rule: cold environment, shorter limbs; warm environment, longer limbs
• Thompson's Rule: shape/width dependent on the environment
• *also found in animals

• Jewlery: bones, stones, jewels; ex) necklace; can be a status symbol; leisure
• Flutes/Recorders: bones with holes; music and emotion; ceremonial; have more time; development of brain
• Mousterian Tools: made of black stone; worked on both sides; spears (hunting); 125,000-40,000ya during the middle Paleolithic or Stone age; not found with any other groups; found with Neanderthals and modern human; more sophisticated; lighter and smaller; retouched/resharpened; more specialized
• Other Mousterian Tools: hand axes; flakes; scrapers to tan hide; borers- a way to drill into things; points- used to hunt with
• Big Game Hunters: explains trauma (reindeer, mammoths, whooly rhinos, megafauna)
• Burials: intentionally bury dead; for respect; real social bond; protect remains; prevent disease; BELIEF IN THE AFTER-LIFE; find flower pollen; found in fetal position
• Compassion: taking care of another ex) old, sick, patalyzed; high levels of trauma
• Shanidar: blind, brain damage, withered arm, other forearm gone; lived for a long time; live 40-45yrs in this condition

• modern throat anatomy
• identical hyoid bone
• sophisticated tools may require language
• brain development for language present
• had genes for language (2 specific genes)

• Splitters: H. Erectus->
• Lumpers: Homo Sapiens ->

• a lot of differences in anatomy
• leaner body
• 160,000ya to the present
• Africa: originates; 160,000-90,000ya
• Near East: 100,000-90,000ya
• Asia: 90,000-18,000ya
• Australia: 60,000-50,000ya (no H. Erectus)
• Europe: 35,000ya
• Americas: 30,000-20,000ya

• France, 1868
• Type Specimen for H. Sapiens: look for chin, smaller teeth, small brow ridge, smaller brain than Neanderthals

• AKA- anatomically modern humas
• smaller jaws and face (due to culture?-foods)
• smaller brain than Neanderthals by 10%
• invented boat 40,000ya

• Seperate Population: H. Neanderthalensis
• Single Population: H. Neanderthalensis; not even subspecies

• Multiregional: gene flow; H. Erectus out of Africa-> Spread-> continue gene flow-> changes in species over time-> adaptations still found today; can reproduce; no speciation; fits well w/ Asian fossils (identical; contintuity)
• Out of Africa: came from Africa; new species from Africa and replaced everything before; TOTAL replacement; EVE HYPOTHESIS- point back to one specific group (one woman); does not explain traits carried on; no interbreeding
• Assimulation Model: came out of Africa and interbred in new areas

• Nuclear DNA (nDNA): does not last long
• Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): lasts long; from female line only
• Y-Chromosome: look at males line

• hard to get
• contamination issues
• does not survive well
• recent studies: show a mixture of genes with modern humans (1-4% minimum)

• Mitochondrial Eve
• lived in Africa 200,000ya
• all modern humans descended from
• mtDNA- differs greatly in Neanderthals
• not more than in subspecies of chimps (no evidence we would not be able to breed with Neanderthals)

• passed down by males
• Some African Y-chromosomes originate in Asia
• traces back to African population 60,000ya (can't go back further)

• Mousterian tools: used by Neanderthals
• New tool kit: Aurignacian; 36,000ya

• SW Asia
• Variety of sites
• 50,000-100,000ya
• both Neanderthals and modern described
• Out of Africa- groups lived together but did not interbreeed

• individuals with mixed traits
• hybrid child skeleton in Portugal
• some Neanderthal traits in modern humans

• SW Asia: co-exist without skeletal or archaeological differences (no strong distinction)
• traits fall within Neanderthal and anatomically modern humans
• shows gene flow
• Middle East: cold= Neanderthals, warm= modern humans; * same area but different seasons because they are not sedentary

• by 28,000, Neanderthal features disappear
• Assimulation Model: humans evolved in Africa; interbreeding; hybrids; migration back into Africa

• 2.5mya-10,000ya
• based on big game hunting and gathering
• Modern Humans: one of the most adaptable species
• inhabitat over 32 different environments or habitats; temps 100 to -50 degrees Fahreinheit; alt. below sea level and up to 12,000ft above

• Trends: lighter, smaller, specialized tools; inhabit new environments; increased hunting (throwing spears); culture increases ----> agriculture
• upper paleolithic: tools are complex; create blades from core; pressure flakes; burin= sharp point; bone tools; tools decorated = pride -> specialization
• Atlatl: blade on stick; increase velocity- hunting is more efficient; distance killing = better hunting

• Shamanism
• visions/trances
• found in the back of caves
• few drawings of people- animals or symbols
• family trees
• origin/after life depictions
• fertility of animals
• found in Australia 45,000ya

• Portable Art
• Venus figures: fertility symbol; the same around the world
• ornamental; beads; necklaces

• music bows
• flutes/recorders
• whistles