APES REVIEW

• enough energy to knock electrons from atoms forming ions, capable of causing cancer
• ex gamma-Xrays-UV

• organized and concentrated, can perform useful work
• ex fossil fuel and nuclear

• disorganized, dispersed
• ex heat in ocean air wind or solar

energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another

when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy usually heat

unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha and beta particles

the time it takes for 1/2 the mass of a radioactive isotope to decay

approximately 10 half-lives

nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons

2 isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at high temperatures till they fuse to form a heavier nucleus. Expensive, break even point not reached yet

a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine

slow acting and long lasting because the organic remains need time to be decomposed

conservation and increase efficiency

cheaper and can remove more mineral, less hazardous to workers

organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms

removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards

deposit of leached materials in lower soil layers

perfect agricultural soil with equal portions of sand, silt and clay

allows the use of resources in a responsible manner

setting aside areas and protecting them from human activities

evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, infiltration

any water bearing layer in the ground

lowering the water table around a pumping well

near the coast, over pumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into acquifer

• El Nino Southern Oscillation
• see-sawing of air pressure over the S. Pacific

trade winds weaken and warm water sloshed back to SA

easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwellings of nutrient rich water off the West coast of South America

upwellings decreased disrupting food chains, N US has mild winters SW US has increased rainfall, less Atlantic Hurricanes

because atmospheric N cannot be used directly by plants it must first be converted into ammonia by bacteria

decomposers convert organic waste into ammonia

ammonia is converted to nitrate ions (NO-3)

inorganic N is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids and proteins

bacteria convert ammonia back into N

it does not exist as a gas, but is released by weathering of phosphate rocks

the ability to meet humanities current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meed their needs

runoff of animal wastes, fertilizer discharge of sewage

plants convert atmospheric C (CO2) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6)

oxygen consuming producers, consumers and decomposers break down complex organic compounds and convert C back to CO2

• 1. Carbonate rocks
• 2. ocean (carbon sink)

living and nonliving components of an ecosystem

photosynthetic life --makes own food

indicator of sewage contamination

only 10% of the usable energy is transferred because useable energy lost as heat (2nd law), not all biomass is digested and absorbed, predators expend energy to catch prey

• good- disinfection of water
• bad- forms trihalomethanes

development of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by a life (lava)

life progresses where soil remains (clear cut forest)

using waste heat to make electricity

symbiotic relationship where both partners benefit

symbiotic relationship where one partner benefits and the other is unaffected

relationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the host

large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants, and animals

the number of individuals that can be sustained in an area

reproduce early, many small unprotected offspring

reproduce late, few and carried offspring

• when a change in some condition triggers a response that intensifies the changing condition
• ex warmer Earth-snow melts - less sunlight is reflected and more is absorbed therefor warmer earth

organisms that possess favorable adaptations pas them onto the next generation

said human population cannot continue to increase --consequences will be war, famine, and disease

rule of 70-- 70 divided by the percent growth rate

• the number of children a couple must have to replace themselves
• 2.1 developed 2.7 developing

almost 6.5 billion

290million

• first stage of industrialization
• birth and death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high

• second stage of industrialization
• death rate lowers, better health care, population grows fast

• third stage of industrialization
• decline in birth rate, population growth slows

• fourth stage of industrialization
• low birth and death rates

• brad bass=rapid growth
• narrow base =negative growth
• uniform shape= zero growth

China -> India

low status of women

• family planning
• contraception
• economic rewards/ penalties
• education of women

• 97.5% sea water
• 2.5% fresh water

in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind

• agriculture- drip/trickle irrigation
• industry- recycling
• home- use gray water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures
• USE LESS

• Point= from specific location such as pipe- can easily be found
• NON POINT= from over an area such as runoff- more difficult to find

biological oxygen demand, amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials

rapid algal growth caused by an excess of N and P

when aquatic plants die, the BOD rises as aerobic decomposers break down the plants, the DO drops and the water cannot support life

mental impairments caused by mercury

• produced by humans and nature
• CO/CO2/SO2/NO/hydrocarbons/particulates

• when a changing in some condition triggers a response that counteracts the changed conditions
• ex/ warmer earth-more ocean evaporation-more stratus clouds- less sunlight reaches the ground-- therefore cooler earth
• basically the end result of change is opposite of the original situation

• SOURCE burning fossil fuels and car exhaust
• EFFECT reduces visibility and respiratory irritation
• REDUCTION filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energy

• SOURCE auto exhaust
• EFFECTS acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to smog and ozone
• REDUCTION catalytic converter
• EQUATION FOR ACID FORMATION NO+O2=NO2+H2O

• SOURCE coal burning
• EFFECTS acid deposition, respiritory irritation, damages plants
• REDUCTION scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuel
• EQUATION FOR ACID FORMATION SO2+O2=SO3+H20=H2SO4

• SOURCE auto exhaust, incomplete combustion
• EFFECTS CO binds to hemoglobin reducing bloods ability to carry O, CO2 contributes to global warming
• REDUCTIONcatalytic converter, emission testing, oxygenated fuel, mass transit

• FORMATION secondary pollutant, NO2+UV=NO+O, O+O2+O3, WITH VOC'S
• EFFECTS respiratory irritation, plant damage
• REDUCTIONreduce NO emissions and VOCs

radioactive gas, formed from decay of Uranium, causes lung cancer and is a problem in the Reading Prong

formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO, VOC, O)

caused by sulfuric and nitric acid resulting in lowered pH of surface waters

• ex/ H20,CO2,O3,METHANE(CH4),CFC'S
• EFFECTS they trap outgoing infrared (heat)energy causing earth to warm

rising sea level (thermal expansion), extreme weather, drought (famine), extinctions

CFC's, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, halon, methyl bromide all of which attack stratospheric ozone

increased UV, skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant growth

chemicals buried in old canal and school and homes built over it causing birth defects and cancer

paper and most is landfilled

harmfull environmental side effects that are not reflected in a product price

• PROBLEM SOLUTION
• leachate liner with collection system
• methane gas collect gas and burn as NRG source
• volume of garbage compact and reduce

volume of waste reduced by 90% and waste heat can be used

toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride--dioxin), scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal (contains heavy metals)

reduce the amount of waste at the source

species whose role in an ecosystem are more important than others-- without which the ecosystem may crash

species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged

have small range, require large territory or live on an island

predators, disease, parasites

• Insecticide Group Example
• chlorinated hydrocarbon DDT
• organophosphates malathion
• carbamates aldicarb

saves lives from insect transmited diseases, increases food supply, increases profits for farmers

genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, biological magnification

better agricultural practices, genetically resistant plants, natural enemies, biopesticides, sex attractants

using steam (from water boiled by fossil fuels or nuclear) or falling water to turn a generator

microscopic aquatic organisms in sediment converted by heat and pressure into a mixtures of hydrocarbons

cheap, easily transported, high quality energy

reserves depleted soon, pollution during drilling, transport and refining, burning makes CO2

peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite

• core, control rods, steam generator, turbines, containment building
• 

• Chernobyl, Ukraine
• Three Mile Island, PA

the amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals in a test population

• Mutagen-- causes hereditary changes
• Teratogen--causes fetus deformation
• Carcinogen- causes cancer

• Garret Hardin
• Freedom to breed is brining ruin to all
• Global commons such as atmosphere and oceans are used by all and owned by none

• at plate boundaries
• Divergent-spreading, mid oceanic ridges
• convergent-trenches and mountain ranges
• Transform-sliding

• favorable environmental conditions (light, temperature, and nutrients)
• high natality
• generalized niche
• satisfactory habitat
• few competitiors
• suitable predatory defense mechanisms
• adequate resistance to disease and parasites
• able to migrate
• flexible or able to adapt
• sufficient food supply

• unfavorable environmental conditions (insufficient light, temperature extreams, and or poor supply of nutrients)
• low natality
• specialized niche
• habitat not satisfactory or has been seriously impacted
• too many competitors
• unsuitable predatory defence mechanisms
• little or not suitable defence mechanisms againt disease or parasites
• unable to migrate
• inflexible-- unable to adapt
• Deficient food supply

• mature rapidly
• short lived
• tend to be prey
• have many offspring and tend to overproduce
• low parental care
• are generally not endangered
• wide fluctuations in population density (booms and busts)
• population size is limited by density independent limiting factors, including climate, weather, natural disasters, and requirements for growth
• tend to be small
• type III survivorship curves

• mature slowly
• long lived
• tend to be both preditior and prey
• have few offspring
• high parental care
• most endangered species are K stratigests
• population size stabilizes near carrying capacity
• density-dependent limiting factors to population growth stem from intraspacific competition and include competition, predation, parasitism, and migration
• tend to be larger
• type I or II survivorship curve

Reporduction occurs fairly early in life. most deaths occure at limit of biological life span, low mortality at birth; high probablity of surviving to advanced age. Death rates increase during old age. Advances in parental care, nutrition, disease prevention, and cures including immunization have meant longer life spans for humans

Examples: humans, annual plants, sheep, and elephants

• Individuals in all age categories have fairly uniform death rates. Predation affecting all age categoies is primary means of death. Typical of organisms that reach adult stages quickly.
• Examples: Rodents, perenial plants, and songbirds.

• Typical of species that have great numbers of offspring and reproduce for most of thier livetime. Death is prevalent for younger members of the species (environmental loss and predation) and declines with age
• Examples: sea turtles, trees, internal parasites, fish, and oysters

• increased food and more efficient distribution that result in better nutrition
• Improvments in medical and public health technology
• improvments in sanitation and personal hygiene
• safer water supplies

(Crude birth rate+immigration) - (crude death rate + emmigration)

Level of fertility at which a couple has only enough children to replace themselves

the average number of children that each woman will have during her lifetime

• poverty
• droughts, which will only increase as the impact of global warming becomes more severe
• populations that have surpased carrying capacity
• political instability and wars, which cause mass migrations
• pestilence
• forgein invastors who own large landholdings and whose sole motivation is profit (selling food to the highest bidder, which often means exporting)

• Agroforestry
• alley cropping
• crop rotation
• high input agriculture
• industrial agricultrue or corporate farming
• intercropping
• interplanting
• low input
• low till, no till, or conservation till agriculture
• monoculture
• organic farming
• plantation
• polyculture
• polyvarietal cultivation
• subsitence
• tillage

harvestable trees or shrubs are grown amoung or around crops or on pastureland as means of preserving or enhancing the productivity of the land

• planting crops in strips with rows of trees or shrubs on each side
• increases biodiversity
• reduces surface water runoff and erosion
• improves utilization of nutrients
• reduces wind erosion
• modifies microclimate for improved crop production
• improves wildlife habitat
• enhances the aesthetic of the area

planting field with different crops from year to year to reduce soil nutrient depletion

ex rotating between corn and soybeans-- corn depletes soil of nitrogen and soybeans put it back in

includes use of mechanized equipment, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides

system characterized by mechanization, monocultures, and use of synthetic inputs such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides, with an emphasis on maximizing productivity and profitablity

to grow more than one crop on the same field, especially in alternating rows or sections

to grow two different crops in the same field, especially in alternating rows or sections

depends on hand tools and natural fertilizers; lacks large-scale irrigation

soil is distrubed litter or not at all to reduce soil erosion, has lower labor costs, reduces need for fertilizer and saves energy

cultivaton of single crop

• form of agriculture that relies on crop rotaion, green manure, compost, biological pest control, and mechanical cultivation to maintain soil productivity and control pests
• excludes or strictly limits use of synthetic fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, plant growth regulatiors, livestock feed additives, and genetically modified organisms

• commercial tropical agriculture system that is essentially export oriented. the local governmetn and foreign/international companies exploit the natural resources of the tropical rain forest for profit, usually short term economic gain
• often involves the deliberate introduction of cultivation of economically desireable species of tropical plants at the expence of widespread replacement of the original native and natural flora
• plantation practices include modification or distrubance of the natural landscape through such artificial practices as the permanent removal of natural vegetation, changes in drainage channels, application of chemicals to the soil, and so on.

• uses different crops in the same space, in imitation of the diversity of natural ecosystems, and avoids large stands of a single crop (monocultrue)
• it includes crop rotation, multicropping, intercropping and alley cropping
• though it often requires more labor, has several advantages over monocultrue
• diversity of crops avoids the susceptibleity of monocultrues to disease
• greater variety of crops provides habitat for more species increasing local biodiversity

planting a plot of land with several varieties of the same crop

• agricultrue carried out for survival with few or no crops available for sale
• usually organic, simply for lack of money to buy industrial inputs such as fertilizer pesticides or genetically modified seeds

• conventional method in which the surface is plowed which then breaks up and exposes the soil
• this is then followed by smoothing the surface and planting
• this method exposes the land to water and wind erosion