Psych Test #4

(1981, 1984) sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to children and adolescents. 

Preconventional moral reasoning

• obeying authority and avoiding punishment
• making a fair exchange, a good deal

• No, because he will be jailed.
• Yes, because his wife will repay him later

• Following rules and social order 
• Pleasing others and getting their approval

• -should steal the drug because he loves his wife and because she and the rest of the family will approve
• -should steal the drug for his wife because he has a duty to care for her, or he should not steal the drug because stealing is illegal

• -Respecting rules and laws, but recognizing that they may have limits
• -Following universal ethical principles, such as justice, reciprocity, equality, and respect for human life and rights 

• (should because life is more important)
• Mother Teresa 

• -Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac output
• -Recall memory does decline with age (essay test)

-Recognition memory does not decline with age (multiple choice test)

Detect physical energy (a stimulus) from the environment and convert it into neural signals.

-eye and brain

When we select, organize, and interpret our sensations.

-happens in the mind

• Analysis of the stimulus begins with the sense receptors and works up to the level of the brain and mind.
• (deals with sensation)

Bottom-up Processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes as we construct perceptions, drawing on our experience and expectations.

• -Why when your are proofreading a paper you need another person to look at it because your eyes are filling in the holes
• -"THE CAT" When seen as a whole, it is percieved as the words themselves, but then you take away the other letters and realize the A's were not connected at all. 
• -Looking at the picture and seeing faces (perception)

Our sensory and perceptual processes work together to help us sort out...

HUE (COLOR)

INTENSITY (BRIGHTNESS)

muscles around the eye

opening that lets light in

covering of eye

Transparent jelly-like substance

• -covers back surface, light-sensitive cells
• -A layer of photo-sensitive cells in the back of the eye

Transduces. Results in neural impulses.

photons. 

rods and cones

Located between photoreceptors and ganglion cells.

• Where light hits on the back of the eye, 
• Central point in the retina around which the eye’s cones cluster
• Specialized, Sharp vision, directly back of eye
• CONTAINS ONLY CONES

• carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
• nerves collect into a cable so no room for retina here

Changing shape and size of the lens

Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye because there are no receptor cells located there

carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

thalamus

visual cortex


edges, angles, and movement.

temporal lobe

shoes, faces, chairs, and houses.

Processing of several aspects of the stimulus simultaneously 

Scene>Retinal Processing>Feature detection>Parallel Processing>Recognition

Any color can be produced by mixing pure versions of blue, green, and red light in different ratios.

• Red cones
• Blue cones
• Green cones

• Genetic disorder in which people are blind to green or red colors. This supports the Trichromatic theory.
• Ishihara Test

• The trichromatic theory cannot explain some aspects of color vision, such as afterimages.
• Red-green color blind people can still see yellow
• Stare at the dot on the next slide for 30 seconds

• Visual elements sensitive to color are grouped into three pairs. The members of each pair, oppose, or inhibit, each other
• Three pairs of red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white.

Both! At the retina: you have 3 types of cones (Tri-chromatic theory). At ganglion cells, there are receptors paired among complimentary colors (opponent-process)

amplitude, or height, of the sound wave

• frequency of the sound wave
• (Determines how high or low a tone sounds)

Mechanical energy converted into electrical activity (neural impulses)

• 1.) Sound waves collected by auditory structures
• (ear, tympanic membrane)
• 2.) Transduction via the cochlea
• (movement of hair in the basilar membrane)
• 3.) Neural signals sent to brain via auditory nerve

Transduction

sway back and forth when inner ear fluid moves, and stimulates nerves

You permanently damage the hairs in the cochlea

Place Theory and Frequency matching theory

• Hair cells at a particular place on the basilar membrane respond most to a particular frequency of sound
• Best describes how we hear HIGH freq.
• Cannot describe how we hear a full range of sounds (ex. low sounds)

• Firing rate of an auditory nerve matches a sound wave’s frequency.
• Best describes how we hear LOW freq.
• Sometimes called the volley theory of frequency coding

smell

taste

Olfaction (smell)

olfactory bulb

amygdala

papillae

sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami(fresh chicken/miso soup/cooked mushrooms)

Taking raw sensation and adding meaning from our knowledge and experience of the world

Figured-Ground Organization

Perceptual Grouping

• Figure: part of visual field that has meaning
• Ground: visual field with less meaning. Edges determine the figure/ground border

Gestalt Laws of organization

that perceptions are not merely due to elementary sensations... the world is greater than the sum... because we add meaning

What properties of stimuli cause us to group them together, into an object?

If things are close together, we group them together (people sitting close = friends)

tend to group things that are alike (group X’s & O’s, not 3 rows of differing O/X combos)

Tends to group things in terms of smooth, continued lines

we see a circle & triangle, turn 3 v’s into a single triangle 

the projection on our retina

Monocular and Binocular

idea that something covers up something else; guy blocking sign = guy must be closer to me than sign

monocular.

person who looks bigger is most likely closer than person farther away

Monocular Depth Cues

= higher up = usually farther away

Monocular Depth Cues

(up close you can see leaves - far away tree is just green blob). refers to actual surfaces

Monocular Depth Cues

(lines converge to a vanishing point)


Monocular Depth Cues

(less clear something is - the farther away it must be) refers to objects


Monocular Depth Cues

Light & Shadow


Monocular Depth Cues

ability of the lens to change its shape and bend light rays so that objects are in focus. information about the muscle activity involved in accommodation serves as one cue helping to create perception of distance

Binocular

a depth cue resulting from rotation of the eyes so that the image can be project on each retina (ball flying towards face)

binocular

A depth cue based on the difference between the retina images received by each eye

the constantly changing image on the retina, when in motion

Looming and Stroboscopic Motion.

Rapid expansion in the size of an image so that it fills the retina

Tendency to perceive movement when a series of still images appear, one at a time, in rapid succession (cartoon movies)

The perception of objects as constant in size, shape, brightness, etc... even when the retinal image changes

• “knowledge-driven” perception
• Perception is influenced by knowledge, experience, etc.

• mental representations of what we expect, or what we know about a situation
• Strongly affects what we perceive

• “data-driven” perception
• Perception based only on the features of the stimulus
• “feature detectors”

• - Learning is the process through which experience modifies behavior and understanding.
• - Allow us to adapt to changing environments

• experiencing events
• observing relationships between those events and 
• noting the regularity in the world around them

Habituation and Sensitization

the process of adapting to stimuli that do not change

showing exaggerated responses to the unexpected, potentially threatening stimuli, especially if one is emotionally aroused at the time.

Classical Conditioning

These are learned responses from observing relationships between two things

More famous figures in psychology, scientist in Russia, interested in digestion, collected dog saliva and noted it was reflex when they smelled meat.

• Group 1: Dogs presented with meal; they salivated
• Group 2: Dogs presented with a musical tone; they did not salivate
• in second phase of study, he presented the tone and then the meat powderPaired tone, previously neutral stimulus, with a natural reflex, salivation

• Third Phase of study: Tone was presented to the dogs but no food was presented
• what happened?
• They salivated
• First demonstration of associative learning (classical conditioning)
• Pavlov = classical conditioning

A stimulus that elicits a response without learning

 the automatic, unlearned reaction to a stimulus

A neutral stimulus that elicits the CR after learning

The response that the conditioned stimulus elicits

• Continued pairing of the CS with the UCS strengthens behavior
• In Pavlov’s experiment, the behavior was salivating (strengthening = more salivating)

• Eventually the CR will disappear. 
• The tone no longer elicits salivation

Behavior quickly returns to normal, no long training required.

-The closer the pitch was to the original CS pitch, the more saliva that was produced

We learn to differentiate between various stimuli; react to some, not others

• Timing
• Predictability
• Signal Strength

• the development of intense, irrational fears of objects or situations
• (i.e. phobias)
• Systematic desensitization uses classical conditioning principles to treat such fears

Classical

Operant = OPERAte, OPERator

Cat pushing lever to get food

If a response made to a particular stimulus is followed by satisfaction, that response is more likely to occur the next time the stimulus is presen

Used a “puzzle box”

operating on the environment

operant. 

how behavior is changed by its consequences

Rat and button he can push to get food pellet

A response/behavior that has some effect on the world

A stimulus even that increases the probability that the operant behavior will occur again

Stimulus that strengthens the response if it follows that response

An unpleasant stimulus that - if removed - strengthens the response that removes the stimulus (ex. pain)

Process of reinforcing successive approximation to target behavior

Events or stimuli that satisfy needs basic to survival (food and water)

Rewards that people or animals learn to like. (money)Sometimes called “conditioned reinforcers”

Continuous, Intermittent/Partial

• Fixed Ratio (FR): Fixed number of responses required for reinforcement
• Variable Ratio (VR): Number of responses required for reinforcement varies around an average (gambling slot machines)

• Fixed Interval (FI): Fixed set of time must elapse before next opportunity for reinforcement
• Variable Interval (VI): Time interval that must elapse before next opportunity for reinforcement varies

• The presentation of an aversive stimulus of the removal of a pleasant one following some behavior. 
• Results in a decrease in the frequency of a response

• Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior
• Punishment: Weakens behavior

Does not “erase” an undesirable habit, merely suppresses it.Must be given immediately after undesirable behaviorCan become aggression, even abuse, when given in anger. Signals what is inappropriate behavior but does not specify correct alternative behavior (does not specify what the correct behavior is)

• Challenges to behavioral view of classical and operant conditioning
• Argued that learning may result from not only from automatic associations but also from mental processes
• Learning is more than just associations, reinforcements, and punishment.

• A) Reinforced every time they successfully got out of maze.
• B) Never reinforced for getting out of maze
• C) Reinforced only after the 11th time. 
• Accelerated after 11th time.
• Means that each group of rats had memory of maze in their head and realized when