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Sagittal Plane divides body into what parts?
right and left halves
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Frontal Plane divides body into what parts?
front and back portions
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Transverse Plane divides body into what parts?
upper and lower halves
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Flexion and Extension occur in what plan?
Sagittal
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What descriptive terms are correlated to the sagittal plane?
medial and lateral
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What actions occur in the frontal plane?
adduction and abduction
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What descriptive terms are used in the frontal plane?
anterior and posterior
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What action occurs in the transverse plane?
rotation
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What descriptive terms refer to the transverse plane?
superior and inferior
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Describe Rostral
describes the position of a structure with reference to the nose
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Name the different types of connective tissues
- fascia
- ligaments
- tendons
- bursa
- fat pads
- bone
- cartilage
- discs
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Describe Fibrous Connective Tissue
- comprised of fibers with widely dispersed cells (fibroblasts)
- fibers embedded in extracellular matrix
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Collagenous
- most common fiber found in connective tissue
- fibers are white
- tough and non-elastic
- when occur in places in which some damage must be possible, they are arranged in wavy bundles that allow movement until the slack of these bundles is taken up
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Elastic Fibers
- these fibers actually are elastic
- they may be stretched, and when the tension on them is relaxed, they shorted again
- frequently mixed with more numerous collagen fibers
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Describe fascia
- Connective tissue arranged in a sheath
- surrounds a group of muscles, individual muscles, bundles of fibers, and individual muscle fibers
- fluid is found in between the layers and allows free movement
- superficial layer of fascia: surrounds and protects structures
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Describe Superficial Fascia
- subcutaneous tissue is called superficial fascia
- surrounds and protects different structures
- helps in preventing the spread of infection or malignant disease
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Describe Deep Fascia
- deep to the superficial fascia
- well-developed
- --seperates muscles in leg into compartments to necessitate nerve innervation and circulation
- perimysium - thin fascia that surrounds individual muscle fibers
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Bursa
- type of connective tissue
- forms pocket-like accumulations of fluid
- provides padding or protection
- often between muscles and tendons or muscle and bone
- susceptible to inflammation and swelling in response to irritation
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What is the most common type of bursitis?
subacromial bursitis
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What are the two types of Subcutaneous Bursas and their function
- Calcaneous Bursa: protects the achilles tendon
- Lateral Malleolar Bursa: protects distal fibula and lateral malleolus
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What is the function of the Subacromial Bursa?
protects the supraspinatus
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Describe Tendons
- type of connective tissue
- fibers are arrandged roughly parallel to one another to form a definite cord
- fibers intertwine to form small bundles
- surrounded by connective tissue sheaths
- parallel fibers, don't stretch well, can be torn. Built for strength
- injured through overuse of overstretching
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Aponeurotic Tendon
broad, flat tendon expansion for attachment to a large area
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Describe Tendons
- type of connective tissue
- connect bone to bone
- most ligaments are composed of dense collagenous tissue
- some are pure elastic tissue
- injured through over strentching - sudden or chronic
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Describe Cartilage
- type of connective tissue
- mainly intercellullar material with scattered cells
- supportive framework for soft tissues
- resists deformation more than bone
- less brittle than bone
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Describe Hyaline/Articular Cartliage
- smooth and glassy
- covers weightbearing ends of bone surfaces
- does not regenerate well after injury
- frictionless
- secretes fluid
- covers all ends of joints
- can wear away after time
- more bone cells can build up as cartilage breaks down
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Describe Fibrocartilage
- supports crushing weights
- --intervertebral disks
- --menisci of knees
- --pubis symphysis
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Describe Elastic Cartilage
- very flexible
- supports soft structures which need to move freely
- in the ear and nose
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What are the layers of the integumentary system. (top to bottom)
- Epidermis
- Dermis
- Subucutaneous tissue
- Deep fascia
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Describe the Epidermis
- most superficial
- protection
- heat regulation
- sensation
- nerve endings
- stage 1 burns - most painful
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Describe the dermis
- directly below the epidermis
- collagen and elastin fibers
- arrector muscles (goose bumps) - allows for most surface area when contracting
- shows wrinkles with age
- stage 2 burn - not as painful, nerves are damaged
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Describe the subcutaneous tissue
- between the dermis and underlying deep fascia
- loose connective tissue and fat
- deepest part of sweat glands, blood and lymphatic vessels, cutaneous nerce are located here
- sensation is absent
- stage 3 burn - systematic problems, nerves are gone
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Describe the deep fascia
dense organized connective tissue layer that invests deep structures
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What do Skin Ligaments attach
attach deep surface of dermis to underlyaing deep fascia
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Where are skin incisions made
- along tension lines
- easily mobile
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Stretch Marks
damage to the collagen fibers in the dermis from rapid growth
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Axial Skeleton
skull, spine, thoracic cage
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Appendicular Skeleton
UE, LE, 2 coxial bones comprising of pelvis
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What is the function of bone?
- protects vital structures
- supports the body
- provides mechanical basis for movement
- blood cell development in marrow
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Bone Structure
- fibrous connective tissue is a solid matrix
- crytals of hydrated calcium phosphate
- fibrous materials for resilience
- salts for hardness and rigidity
- more fibrous in young children = more flexible bones
- increased crystals versus fivers with age = increased brittleness
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Greenstick fracture
- occur in young bones as opposed to a clean break
- more liable in younger children
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Compact Bone
- forms outer surfaces of all bones
- forms entire thickness of long bones except at ends
- laid down in concentric layers
- blood vessel in haversian canals
- bone grows from within
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Spongy or Trabecular Bone
- thin plates forming trabeculae
- trabecular bones exists within compact bone
- found in diapheseal
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What are examples of spongy or trabecular bones
- verterbral bodies
- ends of long bones
- pelvic bones
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Describe long bones
- longer than they are wide
- compact bone with trabecular bone at the end
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Examples of long bones
- humerous
- radius
- ulna
- femur
- tibia
- fibula
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Describe short bones
- bones that are equal height and width
- squarish shape
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Examples of short bones
carpal and tarsal bones
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Describe flat bones
bones with gentle curves
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Describe Irregular Bones
- irregular in shape
- neither clearly long, nor short, nor flat
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Examples of irregular bones
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Describe Sesamoid bones
- round of oval nodules of bone found in tendon
- purpose is to reduce friction and provide better leverage for the muscle
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Examples of sesamoid bones
patella, pisiform, sesamoids of the foot
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What are bone markings and features
- elevations - crest, tubercle, protruberance, trochanter, tuberosity, malleolus, spine, process
- facets
- head, neck
- condyle, epicondyle
- openings or grooves - fossa, groove, notch, foramen, canal meatus
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What is the diaphysis
the shaft of the bone
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What is the epiphysis
- exists at the ends of the shaft of the bone
- growth plate
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What is the metaphysis
narrowed end between the epiphysis and diaphysis
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How does dwarfism (achondroplasia) occur?
lack of growth from the epiphyseal plates
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What are the three categories of articulations?
- Synarthroses
- Amphiarthroses
- Diarthroses
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Describe synarthroses
- fibrous joints: connected with fibrous tissue allowing little to no movement
- suture joint
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Primary function of synarthroses
firmly bind bones together and transmit forces from one bone to another
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What is syndesmoses?
- a type of joint that is joined by a ligament
- connective membrane helps keep the bones together and provides stability
- very little movement
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What are the gomphosis?
sockets for the teeth
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What is amphiarthroses?
- cartilaginous joints
- limited movement
- shock absorption
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What are cartilaginous joints?
a joint that is formed of fibrocartilage and hyaline cartilage
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What is the primary cartilaginous joint and describe it?
- synchondrosis
- hyaline cartilage
- ossifies and closes up with age
- seperated by fibrous tissue
- exists between the diaphysis and the terminal epephysis of long bones
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What is the secondary cartilaginous joint and describe it?
- symphysis
- fibrocartilaginous joints
- all are median and confined to the axial skeleton (except symphysis pubis)
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Examples of symphyses
- intervertebral discs
- pubic symphysis
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What are diarthrosis joints?
- synovial joints
- joint cavity
- articular cartilage
- articular capsule
- synovial membrane
- synovial fluid
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What is the joint cavity?
- space in and around the joint
- surrounded by joint capsule
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Describe articular cartilage
- usually hyaline
- few nerves or blood vessels
- nourished by synovial fluid
- replaced by fibrocartilage when destroyed
- friction free
- glides easily
- not very strong
- "feed" by synovial fluid
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What is the joint capsule?
- comprised of fibrous tissue that surrounds and contains the joint cavity - stratum fibrosum
- synovial membrane - stratum synovium
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Describe the stratum fibrosum
- poorly vascularized
- richly innervated
- receptors detect -
- --rate and direction of motion
- --compression and tension
- --vibration and pain
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Describe the stratum synovium
- highly vascularized - more swelling with injuries
- poorly innervated
- able to vasodilate and constrict (responds well to temperature)
- produces synovial fluid and collagen - aids in healing/stiffness of joint
- allows nutrients to enter and exit joint
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Describe synovial fluid
- hyaluronic acid
- lubricin
- viscosity varies with velocity of movement and temperature
- --less speed = more viscous = less movement
- --more heat = less viscous = more movement
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How are synovial joints usually classified?
according to shape and how they move
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What are the 3 classifications of synovial joints?
- uniaxial: 1 DOF
- biaxial: 2 DOF
- triaxial/multiaxial: 3 DOF
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Examples of uniaxial joints
- hinge joint - frontal plane
- pivot joint - transverse axis
- 1 degree of freedom
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Types of Biaxial Joint
- Condyloid
- Ellipsodial
- Saddle
- 2 degrees of freedom
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What is a condyloid
- biaxial joint
- 2 degrees of freedom
- composed of the articulation between a large, rounded voncex component and a relatively shallow concave component
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What is a Ellisoidal
- biaxial joint
- 2 degrees of freedom
- has a convex elongated surface in one dimension mated with matching concave surface on the other
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What is a saddle joint?
- biaxial joint
- 2 degrees of freedom
- each partner of a saddle joint has two surfaces: one concave and one convex making it simialar to a horseback rider sitting on a saddle
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Types of triaxial joints
- gliding joints - carpal bones
- triaxial joint - ball and socket
- 3 degrees of freedom
- move in any direction
- facet joints of spine
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Origin of skeletal muscle located what attachment?
proximal attatchment
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Insertion of skeletal muscle is located at what attachment?
distal attachment
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Muscles are innervated by what nerves?
peripheral nerves
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Describe skeletal muscle attachments
- have atleast two attachments, usually to bone
- some attached to skin, mucous membrane, fascia
- other muscles form circular bands around connective tissue
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Describe the actions of skeletal muscle
- produce movement by shortening (contractions) - concentric
- they pull, never push
- attempt to resist elongation - eccentric
- remaining at a constant length - isometric
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What are the three types of muscular activation?
concentric, eccentric, and isometric
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Each muscle fiber is innervated by what?
single anterior horn
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What makes up a single motor unit?
- anterior horn cell
- axon
- myoneural junction
- muscle fibers
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What are the three layers of skeletal muscle?
- Epimysium: surrounds entire muscle
- Perimysium: surrounds bundle of muscle fibers
- Endomysium: surrounds individual muscle fibers
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Why is muscle shape important?
it is an indicator of its specific action
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What are the four basic muscle shapes?
- fusiform
- triangular
- rhomboidal
- pennate
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What are parallel fibers?
- fibers that run parallel with the long axis of the muscle
- allows for a greater potential for range of motion
- strap muscles
- examples - levator scapulae, sartorious, sternocleidomastoid, biceps, brachialis
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Describe fusiform muscles
wide in the middle and tapered at the end
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What muscle groups have parallel fibers?
- fusiform
- flat
- transverse
- rhomboidal
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Describe pennate muscles
- olique muscle
- fibers insert at an angle into a tendon that passes through the muscle like barbs of a feather attach to a quill
- the more fibers = more strength
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Types of pennate muscle
- Unipennate - one side attachment
- Bipennate - two sides of tendon
- Multipennate - many tendons within the muscle to which fibers attach
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What are the main muscles activated during movments of the body?
agonists or prime movers
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What muscles oppose the action of prime movers?
- antagonists
- --as a prime mover contracts, the antagonist progressively relaxes (opposes movement)
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What is the role of a synergist?
Prevents movement of the intervening joint when a prime mover passes over more than one joint
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What is the role of a fixator?
steady the proximal parts of a limb while movements are occurring in distal parts
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What is smooth muscle and where is it found?
- involuntary muscle
- walls of digestive tract, uterine tubes, ureter
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Bones of the calvaria
- frontal
- temporal
- parietal
- occipital
- sphenoid
- ethmoid
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Where is the Pterion found?
in the temporal fossa
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What bones intersect in the temporal fossa?
- frontal
- parietal
- temporal
- sphenoid
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What are sinuses?
- cavaties filled with air
- communicate with nasal cavaty
- prone to infection
- examples - ethmoid, maxillary, frontal
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What are cranial venous sinuses?
- contained in dura mater
- receive and drain blood and CSF from the brain
- examples - superior sagittal sinus, transverse sinus, petrosal, sigmoid, cavernous
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What are the three types of meninges?
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What are dura meninges?
- tough fibrous membrane
- contacts skull as periosteum
- separates cerebral hemispheres are cerebrum from cerebellum
- outside layer
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What are arachnoid meninges?
- surrounds brain, separated from dura by "potential space"
- closely follows the dura
- blood or fluid in this space results in pressure on the brain - a subdural hematoma
- big space - middle space
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What is pia mater meninges?
- follow the exact surface of brain
- leaves subarachnoid space
- filled with CSF
- large spaces accumulate more CSF: cisterns
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What are the four parts of the brainstem?
- thalamus
- hypothalamus
- midbrain
- pons and medulla
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What is the role of the cerebellum?
- control of voluntary motor
- balance, coordination, sequencing and alternating movements
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What is the order for blood supply to the brain?
vertebral arteries -> basilar artery -> posterior cerebral arteries
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What makes up the Circle of Willis?
- internal carotids
- --anterior cerebrals - anterior communicating arteries
- --middle cerebrals
- basilar
- --posterior cerebrals - posterior communicating arteries
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Veings of the head and neck
- brachiocephalic
- internal jugular
- external jugular
- anterior jugular
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What is the name of the C1 vertebra?
atlas
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What is the name of the C2 vertebra?
axis
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What is the action of the atlanto-occipital joint?
rotation from right and left
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What is the role of the atlanto-axial joint
flexion and extention
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Describe the Atlanto-Axial Joint
- articulation of the atlas and axis
- no interverbral disc at this level
- Dens held in place by the cruciform ligament whic is covered by the tectorial membrane
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Describe the Atlanto-Occipital Joint
- weak articular capsules
- stability is provided mostly by joint shape and the occipital muscles
- anterior atlanto-occipital membrane is a continuation of the anterial longitudinal ligament (on all the rest of the vertebra)
- posterior atlanto-occipital membrane
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What makes up the laryngeal skeleton?
- Thyroid cartilage (level of C4 and 5)
- Hyoid bone
- cricoid cartilage
- tracheal rings
-
What is the larynx?
the upper part of the lower airway and is attached below to the top of the trachea and above the jyoid bone which is attached to the floor of the oral cavity
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What makes up the upper thoracic area?
- Clavicle
- 1st rib
- Jugular notch
- Sternoclavicular joint
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The facial nerve (VII) controls what muscles?
- cervical
- mandibular
- buccal
- zygomatic
- temporal
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Nerve in the neck
- Vagus - primary parasynpathetic innervation to organs of thorax and abdomen
- phrenic - motor innervation to the diaphragm
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Arteries in the neck
- brachiocephalic
- subclavian
- common carotid
- internal carotid - supply structures within the skull
- externam carotid - supply structures external to the skull, face
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Cervical Plexus
- union of ventral rami C2-C4
- gives rise to several cutaneous nerves to the head and neck and motor fibers to neck muscles
-
Ansa Cervicalis
- junction of C1 nerve fivers with hypoglossal nerve and fibers of C2 and 3
- supplies infrahyoid muscles
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Sympathetic trunks
- extension from the sympathetic nervous system
- form four ganglia lyin over longus colli and longus capitis muscles
- help control blood vessels, sweat glands, puil dilation, heart rate
-
What are the arteries of the face?
- Branches from external carotid
- --superficial temporal
- --facial
- --maxillary
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veins of the face
- external jugular: superficial veins of the face
- Inernal jugular: facial vien
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What are the lymph nodes of the face?
- submandibular lymph nodes
- superfial and deep parotid lymph nodes
- submental lymph nodes
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What are the three divisions of the Trigeminal (V) nerve?
opthalmic, maxillary, mandibular
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Muscles of facial expression are all innervated by what nerve?
facial nerve (VII)
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