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What are the two main points of Darwin�s book?
- Decent with modification.
- *Offspring have variation in genes with parents.
- Natural selection.
- *(Differential reproduction) the idea that those organisms best adapted to a given environment will be most likely to survive to reproductive age and have offspring of their own.
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What is Macroevolution?
Evolutionary Change on a Grand Scale
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What are the two theories of macroevolution?
- Gradualism - small changes over time
- punctuated Equilibrium - large periods of time with little change and short periods of time with large changes.
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What is punctuated equilibrium?Speciation occurs in episodic events � large periods of time with little change and short periods of time with large changes
Speciation occurs in episodic events - large periods of time with little change and short periods of time with large changes
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What are the three types of gradualism?
- Populational - new traits become established in a population by increasing their frequency from a small fraction of the population to the majority
- Phenotypic - New traits, even those that are strikingly different from ancestral ones are produced in small increments
- Phyletic - on a geological time scale, there are intermediate forms connecting the phenotypes of ancestors and descendents
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What is a biological species?
A group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring.
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What is allopatric speciation?
Change of species due to geographical hinderance
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What conditions favor allopatric speciation?
- Small population (different gene could spread quickly)
- Isolation (immigration and emigration)
- Different environmental conditions (ex: Grand Canyon)
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Sympatric speciation?
- Autopolyploidy (self many chromosomes)
- Allopolyploidy
- Hybrid Zone
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What is autopolyploidy?
self many chromosomes
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What is Allopolyploidy?
Change of species due to geographical hinderance
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What is a hybrid zone? What are the three outcomes?
- Overtime
- Reinforcement - Strengtheining of reproductive barriers
- Fusion - Weakening of reproductive barriers
- Stability - Continued production of hybrid individuals
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What is the origin of novelty? (exaptations)
- Most novelties are modified version of older structure
- Exaptation- preadaptation
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What is allometric growth?
the variation in the relative rates of growth of various parts of the body
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What is evo-devo?
- Modern Synthesis:
- *Gradual evolution can be explained by small genetic changes that produce variation which is acted upon by natural selection
- *The evolution at higher taxonomic levels and of greater magnitude can be explained by long periods of time
- Genetic tool kit:
- *Hox proteins
- *Pax-6 gene
- *Cell-type regulators
- *Cellular receptors
- *Hormones
- *Coloration proteins
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What is heterochrony?
evolutionary change in the timing or rate of development
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What is paediomorphosis?
- retention of juvenile features in an adult
- *sexual maturity in a larval form
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What are hox genes (homeotic genes)?
Homeotic Genes (Hox Genes) position information
- How do evolutionary trends behave?
- Evolutionary trends are not goal oriented
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What is adaptive radiation?
The emergence of numerous species from a common ancestor introduced into an environment, presenting a diversity of new opportunities and problems
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Know the ways fossils are formed and what fossilizes.
- Sedimentary rocks: things been covered quickly. Ex: Grand Canyon
- Hard parts: teeth, bone, shell, seeds, spore.
- Minerals: petrified tree.
- Organic material: leaves, insect. Preserve the ecology at that time.
- Casts: outside structure of the organism
- Trace fossils: footprint/ evidence of social behavior, size, and weight.
- Entire organism: organism preserved within amber
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What are the limitations of the fossil record?
You only have the hard shells no flesh.
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Know how to do a radiometric problem?
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What is a half-life?
The time it takes for half of the radioactive compound to decay.
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Know the geological time scale.
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What is continental drift?
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K-T boundary?
Chicxulub Crater- Caribbean Sea near the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico
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Pangaea?
- Pangaea (245 mya)
- Pangaea began to break up (180mya)
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Laurasia?
asia, north America, europe
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Gondwana?
South America, Antarctica
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Know the structure of viruses.
Nucleic acid encased in a protein coat (capsid)
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Know the viral genome structure.dsDNAssDNAdsRNA (reo)ssRNA - serve as mRNA (+), Serve as template for mRNA (-), serve as template for DNA (retro)
- dsDNA
- ssDNA
- dsRNA (reo)
- ssRNA - serve as mRNA (+), Serve as template for mRNA (-), serve as template for DNA (retro)
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Know how viruses replicate.
- only reproduce when they enter a hose cell
- They lack ribosomes and enzymes necessary for protein synthesis and simple metabolism
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What are bacteriophages?
virsus that attack bacteria
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What are the lytic and lysogenic reproductive cycles?
- Lytic inserts their dna into the cell which makes more virus and lycis the cell and spread
- Lysogenic DNA combines w/ the cell DNA which makes replication of that infected cell
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Know the information give on HIV virus.
- CD4 receptors
- Endocytosis
- Reverse Transcriptase
- DNA Incorporation
- Produces genome for new virus
- Assemble HIV particles
- Exit by budding or lysis
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What are the HIV treatments?
- AZT - blocks replication
- Protease inhibitors - blocks building of capsid
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Know the structure of a prokaryotic cell.
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Know how bacteria reproduce asexually and through genetic combination.
- (Asexual)Binary Fission: DNA replicates and the cell divide in two. good speed and energy
- (Sexual)Transformation - receives fragments of DNA from the environment
- (Sexual)Transduction - DNA carried into a cell through viruses
- (Sexual)Conjugation - exchange of DNA fragments
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What different methods are used to classify bacteria?
- shape
- gram stain reaction
- oxygen requirements
- feeding strategies
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Know the different shapes of bacteria.
- Cocci: Spherical shape
- Bacilli: Rod-shaped
- Helical: Spiral- shaped
- Filamentous - long and straight
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Know how gram staining is done and how to read a test.
- Bacteria are stained with a violet dye and iodine
- Rinsed in alcohol
- stained again with a red dye
- Results
- violet = gram positive
- red = gram negative
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Why do they stain those colors?
- Positive gram bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan which sucks up the violet dye.
- Negative gram bacteria have a thin peptidoglycan between plasma membrane and doesn't absorb the voilet dye.
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Know the oxygen requirements seen in bacteria.
- Obligate aerobes needs oxygen
- obligate anaerobes oxygen will kill it
- Facultative anaerobes will use the oxygen if it is there but it doesn't need it.
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Know the different types of feeding adaptations seen in bacteria.
- Feeding strategy photoautotrophic Energy source Carbon source Light CO2
- Feeding strategy chemoautotrophic Energy source Carbon source Inorganic chemical CO2
- Feeding strategy photoheterotrophic Energy source Carbon source Light Organic compound
- Feeding strategy chemheterotrophic Energy source Carbon source Organic chemical Organic compound
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What is nitrogen metabolism? Nitrogen fixation?
- Nitrogen metabolim -nitrogen is needed for protein and nucleic acids
- Nitrogen fixation - convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia
- Makes nitrogen available for other organisms
Know the classification of bacteria and the different groups and species we discussed in class.
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Know the different symbiotic relationships discussed in class.
- Mutualism: the relation between two different species of organisms that are interdependent; each gains benefits from the other (+/+)
- Commensalism: the relation between two different kinds of organisms when one receives benefits from the other without damaging it (+/0)
- Parasitism: the relation between two different kinds of organisms in which one receives benefits from the other by causing damage to it(+/-)
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What is the difference between exo and endotoxins?
- exotoxin- secreted b bacteria
- endotoxins - component of the cell wall
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What is bioremediation?
sweage spills, oil spill clean ups
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Know the characteristics of eukatyotic cells.
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What are the two theories on how they come about?
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Know the classification of "protista" given in class.
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Know why they are lumped together. (Supergroups, clades, groups)
Know why they are different.
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Know the general information on fungi.
- primarily terrestrial
- filamentous
- hyphae
- coenocytic (no wall)
- septate (wall)
- mycelium (a bunch of hyphae together)
- haustoria (feeding hyphae)
- What general fungi characteristics are related to animals?
- Heterotrophic - absorption (saprobes), parasitic, mutalistic
- Cell wall: chitin
- Store sugar as glycogen
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Know fungal reproduction. (asexually and sexually � karyogamy,syngamy,plasmogamy);
- (Asexual) haploid spores (conidia/ sporangia)
- (Sexual)hyphae (haploid)
- (Sexual)plasmogamy (dikaryon) (plasma fusing together)
- (Sexual)karyogamy (diploid) (nucleus fusing together)
- (Sexual)synogamy (diploid) (happens all at once)
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Know the fungal classification.
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Know the life cycles of zygomycota, ascomycota, and basidiomycota.
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What are deuteromycota and why are they called imperfect fungi?
imperfect fungi (no sexual cycle)
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What are mycorrhizae?
Arbuscular mycorrhizae - increases surface area for the absorption of water and nutrients.
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What are lichen?
- What are the ecological impacts?
- Lichens are mutualistic - association with a green algae or cyanobacteria and an ascomycota or basidiomycota and pioneer organisms
- Ecological impacts - decomposers, pathogens, food production
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Know the overall evolution of plants.
- Nonvascular Seedless plants - (Ordovician - 475 mya)
- Vascular Seedless plants - (Devonian - 400 mya)
- Vascular Seed plants - (Carboniferous - 360 mya)
- Flowering plants - (Cretaceous - 130 mya)
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What is thought to be the ancestor to terrestrial plants?
- What is the support for this?
- Multicellular and Eukaryotic
- Cell walls made of Cellulose
- Chlorophyll a and b
- Store excess sugar as starch
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Know the adaptations seen in plants for terrestrial life.
- Apical meristems
- Muticellular dependent embryo (to give the offspring a better start)
- Alternative of generation (ex: gametophyte ? sporophyte)
- Walled spores produced in sporangia (protection)
- Other adaption: Cuticle: waxy material to reduce water loss, Stomata: control water loss (gas exchange), Xylem: move water (allow plants to grow taller), Phloem: move food (allow plants to grow taller)
- Secondary compounds: developing compounds that is toxic to protect the plant from the predators
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Know the characteristics of nonvascular seedless plants.
Nonvascular seedless plants
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What are the different nonvascular seedless divisions given? Know their characteristics.
- bryophyte - mosses
- hepatophyta - liverworts, two forms, leafy (80%), thalloid (20%)
- reproduction
- asexual (gemmae cups)
- sexual
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Know the life cycle of a moss.
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Know the characteristics of vascular seedless plants.
- formation of vascular tissues
- xylem (water)
- phloem (food)
- true leaves, roots, & stems
- Lignin(support)
- sporophyte generation dominate
- sperm with flagella
Know the different vascular seedless divisions given. Know their characteristics.
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Know the life cycle of a fern.
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