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given this universe composed of matter and energy, why is there such a thing as consciousness?
hard problem
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what is the relationship between mental experience and brain activity?
mind-brain problem
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the study of physiological, evolutionary, and developmental mechanisms of behavior and experience
biological psychology
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relating a behavior to the activity of the brain and other organs
physiological explanation
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reconstructs the evolutionary history of a structure or behavior
evolutionary explanation
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describes why a structure or behavior evolved as it did
functional explanation
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strands of genes
chromosomes
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deoxyribonucleic acid
DNA
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biological catalysts that regulate chemical reactions in the body
enzymes
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genes that are present in both sexes, generally on autosomal chromosomes, but active mainly in one sex
sex-limited genes
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genetic inability to metabolize the amino acid phenylaline
PKU
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idea that if you exericse your arm mucles, your children will be born with bigger arm muscles, and if you fail to use your little toes, your children's little toes will be smaller than yours
Lamarckian evolution
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the number of copies of one's genes that endure in later generations
fitness
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action that benefits someone other than the actor
altruistic behavior
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selection for a gene that benefits the individual's relatives
kin selection
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receive information and trasmit it to other cells
neurons
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structure that separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment
membrane
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structure that contains the chromosomes
nucleus
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structure that performs metabolic activities
mitochondria
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sites at which the cell synthesizes new protein molecules
ribosomes
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network of thin tubes that transport newly synthesized proteins to other locations
endoplasmic reticulum
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has its soma in the spinal cord
motor neuron
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specialized at one end to be highly sensitive to a partiular type of stimulation
sensory neuron
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short outgrowths that increase the surface areal available for synapses
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contains the nucleus, ribosomes, and mitochondria
cell body/soma
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point form which the axon releases chemicals that cross through the junction between one neuron and the next
presynaptic terminal
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brings info into a structure
afferent axon
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carries info away form a structure
efferent axon
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a cell's dendrites and axon are entirely contained within a single cell
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interneuron/ intrinsic neuron
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protein mediated process that expends energy to pump chemicals form the blood into the brain
active transport
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different electrical charge between the inside and outside of the cell
electrical gradient
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the difference in voltage in a resting neuron
resting potential
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protein complex that repeatedly transports three sodium ions out of the cell while drawing two potassium ions into it
sodium-potassium pump
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difference in distribution of ions across the membrane
concentration gradient
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messages sent by axons
aciton potentials
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increased polarization
hyperpolarization
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their permeability depends on the voltage difference across the membrane
voltage-gated channels
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the amplitude and velocity of an ation potential are independent of the intesnity of the stimulus that initiated it, provided that the stilulus reaches the threshold
all-or-none law
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immediately after an action potential during which it resists the prodution of further action potentials
refractory period
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membrane cannot produce an action potential, regardless of stimulation
absolute refractory period
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a stronger than usual stimulus is necessary to initiate an action potential
relative refractory period
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a swelling where the axon exits the soma
axon hillock
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the transmission of an action potential down an axon
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proagation of the action potential
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insulating material composed of fats and proteins
myelin
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the jumping of action potentials from node to node
saltatory conduction
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when a local neuron receives info from other neurons: a membrane potential that varies in magnitude in proportion to the intensity of the stimulus
graded potential
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specialized gap between neurons
synapse
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automatic muscular responses to stimuli
reflexes
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circuit from sensory neuron to muscle response
reflex arc
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repeated stimuli within a brief time have a cumulative effect
temporal summation
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delivers transmission
presynaptic neuron
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receives transmission
postsynaptic neuron
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results from a flow of sodium ions into the neuron
excitatory postsynaptic potential
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occurs when synaptic input selectively opens the gates for potassium ions to leave the cell or for chloride ions to enter the cell
inhibitory postsynaptic potential
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periodic production of action potentials even without synaptic input
spontaneous firing rate
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corresponding to the brief on/off effects that Sherrington and Eccles studied
ionotropic effects
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