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breathing
the process of the exchange of air between the lungs and the environment, including inspiration and expiration
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respiratory membrane
the membrane where the diffusion of oxygen and other gases occurs between the living cells of the body and the external environment (the atmosphere or water)
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respiration
all processes involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between cells and the environment, including breathing, gas exchange, and cellular respiration
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cilia
tiny hairlike structures found on some cells that sweep away foreign debris
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epiglottis
the structure that covers the glottis (opening of the trachea) during swallowing
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bronchi
the passage from the trachea to the left and right lung
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bronchiole
the smallest passageways of the respiratory tract
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alveoli
sacs of the lung in which gas exchange occurs
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pleural membrane
a thin membrane that surrounds the outer surface of the lungs and lines the inner wall of the chest cavity
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diaphragm
a sheet of muscle that separates the organs of the thoracic cavity from those of the abdominal cavity
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intercostal muscle
a muscle that raises and lowers the rib cage
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oxygen is essential to survival because...
the cells of the body obtain energy through oxidation
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Trace the flow of air
air enters the respiratory system through the nose or mouth, then it enters the pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and the bronchioles and alveoli in the lungs
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In the alveoli...
gases diffuse between air and blood according to concentration gradients. Oxygen moves into the alveoli and carbon dioxide moves out of the alveoli
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The movement of gases into and out of the lungs is determined by...
the difference in pressure between the atmosphere and the thoracic cavity
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Pressure in the thoracic cavity is regulated by
the diaphragm
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the diaphragm is assisted by the movement of the
intercostal muscles
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During inspiration (inhalation)
the intercostal muscles contract, the diaphragm flattens and pulls downwards, the rib cage pulls outward, chest volume increases, pressure in lungs decreases, and air moves into the lungs
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During expiration (exhalation)
the intercostal muscles relax, the diaphragm becomes dome shaped, the rib cage falls, chest volume decreases, pressure in the lungs increases, and air moves out of the lungs
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hemoglobin
the oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells
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oxyhemoglobin
the hemoglobin that is bound to oxygen
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carbonic anhydrase
an enzyme found in red blood cells that speeds the conversion of carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid
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buffer
a substance capable of neutralizing acids and bases, this maintaining the original pH of the solution
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Gases diffuse from
an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure
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the partial pressure of oxygen is
highest in the atmosphere and lowest in the veins and tissues
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oxygen diffuses from the atmosphere into
alveoli and then into the blood
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hemoglobin bonds to oxygen molecules to form
oxyhemoglobin
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in the capillaries hemoglobin and oxygen
dissociate and oxygen diffuses into the tissues
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partial pressure of carbon dioxide is
the highest in the tissues and veins and lowest in the atmosphere
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carbonic acid is formed from? what is its purpose?
- carbon dioxide+water+plasma=carbonic acid
- this decreases the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood, ensuring that carbon dioxide continues to diffuse into the blood
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carbonic acid dissociates into...
HCO-3 and H+
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Hemoglobin combines with H+ to...
release oxygen and act as a buffer
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In the lungs H+ and HCO3- combine to
form carbon dioxide and water
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Carbon dioxide diffuses from the
blood into alveoli
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carbon dioxide is eliminated
through exhalation
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to help maintain equilibrium
chemical receptors detect a change in gas levels and send a message to increase or decrease breathing rate
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chemoreceptor
a specialized nerve receptor that is sensitive to specific chemicals
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bronchitis
an inflammation of the bronchial tubes
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emohysemsa
a respiratory disorder characterized by an overinflation of the alveoli
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bronchial asthma
a respiratory disorder characterized by reversible narrowing of the bronchial passages
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breathing movements are regulated by
the medulla and by chemoreceptors in the carotid artery and the aorta
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all respiratory disorders
decrease oxygen delivery to the tissues. healthy lungs are much more efficient at gas exchange than unhealthy lungs are
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lung tumours
reduce the surface area for diffusion
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cardiac muscle
the involuntary muscle of the heart
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smooth muscle
the involuntary muscle found in the lining if many organs
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skeletal muscle
the voluntary muscle that makes the bones of the skeleton move
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artery
a blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart
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pulse
change in the diameter of the arteries following heart contractions
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autonomic nervous system
the part of the nervous system that controls the motor nerves that regulate equilibrium and that us not under conscious control
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vasoconstriction
the narrowing of blood vessels, allowing less blood to the tissues
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vasodilation
the widening of blood vessels, allowing more blood to the tissues
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atherosclerosis
a degeneration of blood vessels caused by the accumulation of fat deposits in the inner wall
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arteriosclerosis
a group of disorders that cause the blood vessels to thicken, harden, and lose their elasticity
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aneurysm
a bulge in the weakened wall of a blood vessel, usually an artery
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Carry blood away from the heart
arteries
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vein
a blood vessel that carries blood towards the heart
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the site of fluid and gas exchange between the blood and the cells
capillaries
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pressure in the veins is much lower than in the
arteries
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what helps venous blood flow?
one-way valves and skeletal muscles
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septum
a wall of muscle that separates the right and left sides of the heart
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pulmonary circulatory system
the system of blood vessels that carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs and oxygenated blood back to the heart
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systemic circulatory system
the system of blood vessels that carries oxygenated blood to the tissues of the body and deoxygenated blood back to the heart
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atrium (plural: atria)
a thin-walled chamber of the heart that receives blood from veins
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ventrical
a muscle, thick walled chamber of the heart that delivers blood to the arteries
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atrioventricular (AV) valve
a heart valve that prevents the backflow of blood from a ventrical into an atrium
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semilunar valve
a valve that prevents the backflow of blood from an artery into a ventricle
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aorta
the largest artery in the body; carries oxygenated blood to the tissues
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coronary artery
an artery that supplies the cardiac muscle with oxygen and nutrients
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myogenic muscle
muscle that contracts without external nerve stimulation
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sinoatrial (SA) node
a small mass of tissue in the right atrium that originates the impulses stimulating the heartbeat
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atrioventricular (AV) node
a small mass of tissue in the right atrioventricular region through which impulses from the sinoatrial node are passed to the ventricles
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Purkinjie fibre
a nerve fibre that branches and carries electrical impulses throughout the ventricles
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sympathetic nervous system
a division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stress
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parasympathetic nervous system
a division of the autonomic nervous system that returns the body to normal resting levels following adjustments to stress
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diastole
relaxation (dilation) of the heart, during which the atria fill with blood
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systole
contraction of the heart, during which blood is pushed out of the heart
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Lubb-dubb sound is caused by
the AV valves and semilunar valves closing in turn as blood is pushed from the atria through the ventricles and out of the heart. If the valves do not close completely, the heart compensates by beating faster and pumping blood with more force
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cardiac output
the amount of blood pumped from the heart each minute
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stroke volume
the quantity of blood pumped with each beat of the heart
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sphygmomanometer
a device used to measure blood pressure
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hypothalamus
a region of a vertebrate's brain responsible for coordinating many nerve and hormone functions
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thermoregulation
maintenance of body temperature within a range that enables cells to function efficiently
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Blood pressure is
the force of blood on the walls of the arteries. It is measured as systolic and diastolic blood pressure in mmHg
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blood pressure s higher in vessels closer to the
heart
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increased cardiac output increases
blood pressure
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if arteries are constricted
blood flow is slower and blood pressure is higher
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extracellular fluid (ECF)
fluid that occupies the space between cells and tissues; includes plasma and interstitial fluid
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filtration
the selective movement of materials through capillary walls by a pressure gradient
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lymph
the fluid found in lymph vessels that contains some proteins that have leaked through capillary walls
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lymph node
a mass of tissue that stores lymphocytes and removes bacteria and foreign particles from the lymph
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lymphocyte
a white blood cell that produces antibodies
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spleen
a lymphoid organ that acts as a reservoir for blood and filtering site for lymph
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thymus gland
a lymphoid organ in which T lymphocytes mature
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spleen
a lymphoid organ that acts as a reservoir for blood and a filtering site for lymph
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thymus gland
a lymphoid organ in which T lymphocytes mature
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The movement of water between blood and the ECF is regulated by
fluid pressure and osmotic pressure
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Why does water move from the capillaries to the ECF?
Water moves from an area of high pressure, the capillaries, to an area of lower pressure, the ECF
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Proteins and dissolved minerals in the blood cause
fluid from the ECF to move into the blood by osmosis
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Proteins in the ECF are returned to the circulatory system by
the lymphatic system
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Lymph nodes house
white blood cells that filter bacteria
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Red bone marrow is where all types of what are produced?
blood cells
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The spleen stores and purifies
blood
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What does the spleen release in response to low blood pressure or low oxygen levels in blood?
red blood cells
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plasma
the fluid portion of the blood (55% of blood)
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erythrocyte
a red blood cell that contains hemoglobin and carries oxygen (45% of blood)
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anemia
the reduction in blood oxygen due to low levels of hemoglobin or poor red blood cell production
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leukocyte
a white blood cell (less then 1% of blood)
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What are the plasma proteins?
albumins, globulins, fibrinogens
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What is the function of albumins?
osmotic balance
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What is the function of globulins?
antibodies, immunity
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what is the function of fibrinogens?
blood clotting
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platelet
a component of blood responsible for initiating blood clotting
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thrombus
a blood clot that forms within a blood vessel and blocks it
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embolus
a blood clot that dislodges and carried by the circulatory system to another part of the body
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anigen
a substance, usually protein, that stimulates the formation of an antibody
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antibody
a protein formed within the blood that reacts with an antigen
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agglutination
the clumping of blood cells caused by antigens and antibodies
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What is the differences in blood types?
type A has the A antigen, type B has the B antigen, type AB has both, and type O has neither
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What blood type is the universal recipient?
AB
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What blood type is the universal donor?
O
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What is the Rhesus (Rh) factor?
It is another potential source of blood incompatibility. It is another antigen.
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Phagocytosis
the process by which a white blood cell engulfs and chemically destroys a microbe
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Macrophage
a phagocytic white blood cells fount in lymph nodes, bone marrow, and the spleen and liver
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pus
a thick liquid composed of protein fragments from digested leukocytes and microbes
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inflammatory response
localized nonspecific response triggered when tissue cells are injured by bacteria or physical injury, characterized by swelling, heat, redness, and pain
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complement protein
a plasma protein that helps defend against invading microbes by tagging the microbe for phagocytosis, puncturing cell membranes, or triggering formation of mucous coating
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T cell
a lymphocyte, manufactured in the bone marrow and processed by the thymus gland, that identifies and attacks foreign substances
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B cell
a lymphocyte, made and processed in the bone marrow, that produces antibodies
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receptor site
a port along a cell membrane into which hormones, nutrients, and other needed materials fit
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helper T cell
a T cell with receptors that bind to fragments of antigens
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lymphokine
a protein produced by the T cells that act as a chemical messenger between other T cells and B cells
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killer T cell
a T cell that destroys microbes, body cells infected with viruses, and mutated cells by puncturing cell membranes
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suppressor T cell
a T cell that turns off the immune system
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memory B cell
a B cell that retains information about the shape of an antigen
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Skin and mucous membranes provide
physical barriers that prevent most infectious organisms from entering the body
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pluripotent cell
a cell that is capable of developing into a number of specialized cell, such as neuron or muscle cell
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abnormal functioning of the immune system can cause two types of problems:
immunodeficiency disease and inappropriate immune response (allergic reactions and autoimmune diseases)
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Autoimmune diseases occur when
lymphocytes treat the body's cells as forgein
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cardiac arrest
the heart suddenly beats dangerously fast and then cannot pump blood to the body. Without immediate medical treatment, cardiac arrest will lead to sudden cardiac death
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heart attack
occurs when a blood clot partially or completely blocks a coronary artery, causing damage to a portion of the heart
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heart failure
is a condition that weakens the heart muscle, usually over time, causing the heart to pump less effectively
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Edema
is swelling caused by disruptions in the flow of lymph
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What is fibrinogen converted to in a cascade of complex reactions?
fibrin
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Surfactant
keeps alveoli from sticking together and collapsing
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Pleural membrane
keeps the lungs and ribs together
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Breathing control centers are in two regions of the brain:
the medulla oblongata and the pons
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The medulla regulates the
rate and depth of breathing in response to pH changes in the cerebrospinal fluid
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The pons regulate
the breathing tempo
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Sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries monitor
O2 and CO2 concentrations in the blood
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How many molecules of O2 can one hemoglobin carry?
4
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Innate immunity
is present before any exposure to pathogens and is effective from the time of birth
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Acquired immunity
or adaptive immunity, develops after exposure to agents
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Following an injury mast cells release
histamine, which promotes changes in blood vessels
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Increase in local blood supply allows
more phagocytes and antimicrobacterial proteins to enter tissues
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Fever
is a systemic inflammatory response triggered by pyrogens released by macrophages and toxins from pathogens
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septic shock
is a life threatening condition caused by an overwhelming inflammatory response
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All cells in the body (except red blood cells) have a class
1 MHC protein on their surface
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Cancerous cells or infected cells no longer express this protein
1 MHC
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What attacks damaged cells?
natural killer (NK) cells
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A single B or T cell have about 100, 000 identical
antigen receptors
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Acquired immunity has 2 branches, what are they?
- Hormonal immune response
- Cell-mediated immune response
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Hormonal immune responce
involves activation and clonal selection of B cells, resulting in production of secreted antibodies
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Cell-mediated immune response
involves activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic T cells
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