PSYC of G ch. 3

• ·        
• the beliefs associated with the characteristics
• and personalities appropriate to men and women

• influenced by
• historical views

• ·        
• arose during Victorian times

• believed that women
• should be pious, pure, submissive, and domestic

• ·        
• a model of masculinity

• ·        
• believes that to be successful as a man, males
• must identify with the elements of that role

• ·        
• need to avoid all feminine activities and
• interests

• need to have an
• achievement orientation, suppress emotions, and be aggressive and assertive

• ·        
• first test that measured personality traits

• conceptualized
• masculinity and femininity  as opposite
• poles of one continuum

• still uses unidimensional approach as The
• Attitude Interest Analysis Survey

• ·        
• recent approach to the measurement of masculinity
• and femininity

• ·        
• Bem Sex Role Inventory

• ·        
• Personal Attributes Questionnaire

• allows for
• classification of people ase androgynous

• ·        
• physical characteristics

• ·        
• traits

• ·        
• behaviors

occupations

• the illusion that more activities and
• characteristics are associated with gender than actually are

• ·        
• more flexible after age 7

• ·        
• rigid during adolescents

• more flexible in
• adulthood

• ·        
• prejudice

• ·        
• discrimination

• ·        
• threat

benevolent sexism

• consists of positive attitudes that nonetheless
• serve to belittle women and keep them subservient

• ·        
• all cultures delegate different roles to men and
• women

• the traits associated
• with each gender varies among cultures

instrumental, agentic model

expressive, communal model

• a blending of masculinity and femininity, in
• which the desirable characteristics associated with both men and women are
• combined within individuals

• positive attitudes that nonetheless serve to
• belittle women and keep them subservient

• the beliefs about the characteristics associated
• with, and the activities appropriate to, men or women

• ·        
• the incorrect belief that two events vary
• together

• or the perception
• that the relationship is strong when little or no actual relationship exists

• ·        
• attitudes that people hold on an unconscious
• level

• may differ from their
• explicit, conscious attitudes

• a phenomenon that occurs in situations in which
• the presence of negative stereotypes affects the performance of those to whom
• the stereotype applies

• ·        
• the process of demonstrating that a
• psychological test measures what it claims to measure

• the procedure that
• demonstrates the accuracy of a test

• beliefs people hold about men's and women's attributes
• - descriptive
• - prescriptive

all people know the stereotypes, whether or not they act on them

people who are not prejudice tend to suppress stereotypes

ex: age

• *female attributes: expressive, communal
• *male attributes: instrumental (getting stuff done), agnetic (individuality)

• 1990
• similarity in developed and developing countries
• more highly differentiated in Muslim countries
• - women's role in the home
• - gender segregation
• supports female and male attributes

• male: dominance, autonomy, aggression, exhibition, achievement
• female: abasement, deference, succorance, nurturance
• note: all attributes are intercorrelated

• 1984
• social roles
• occupations
• physical characteristics

• sexual division of labor
• bipolar - driven by human cognition, expressed in the literature; as you become more male, you become less female; single dimension; men and women as bipolar opposites
• "opposite vs. other sex"

Head of household; Financial provider; Leader; Responsible for household repairs

Independent; Active; Competitive; Makes decisions; Doesn’t give up; Self-confident; Feels superior; Stands up well under pressure

Tall; Strong; Sturdy; Broad shouldered

Telephone installer; Police officer; Automobile mechanic; Construction worker

Source of emotional support; Manages house; Takes care of children; Responsible for decorating house

Emotional; Able to devote self to others; Gentle; Helpful to others; Kind; Aware of others’ feelings; Understanding of others; Warm in relations with others

Soft voice; Dainty; Graceful; Soft

Hairdresse; Secretary; Telephone operator; Registered nurse

• early studies likely report stereotypes of European-American men and women
• Landrine (1985) found African-American and European-American female stereotypes feminine, with exceptions
• - european american women competent, dependent, vain, emotional, etc.
• - african american women dirty, hostile, superstitious

• Cozzarelli, Tagler & Wilkinson, 2002
• - stereotypes of poor women more positive and family oriented than that of poor men
• - poor men dirtier, criminal, alcoholic
• Attributions (causes) about poverty
• - men unmotivated, can't handle finances
• - women had too many children, negatively affected family

• Kite & Deaux (1987)
• - similar stereotypes of gay men, straight women (r = .49)
• - similar stereotypes of lesbians, straight men (r = .50)
• - stereotypes of straight women and men had low correlation (r = .16)
• Grounded in cultural assumptions
• - nature of M-F
• -Freudian theory

• physical appearance
• - feminine male faces, masculine female faces = homosexual
• - physically androgynous photos perceived as less gender-typed and more likely to be homosexual
• cultural beliefs about concordance of gendered attributes
• long-standing stereotypes of homosexuals

• Wilde & Diekman (2005)
• - german and american undergraduates
• - rated average man, woman from 1950, present, 2050
• - replicated gender differences
• - social trends differed by country
• Supports social role theory

• (implicit gender stereotypes)
• brief exposure to objects related to sex elicit male female stereotypes (ex: baseball/oven mitt)
• IAT
• - Greenwald and colleagues
• - reaction time assesses strength of association
• - reduced social desirability bias
• - positive correlation with explicit stereotypes
• - most  pronounced women = family, men = career

• people hold stereotypes because there is a kernel of truth
• Swim (1994), Hall and Carter (1999)
• Comparison = meta-analysis results
• - participants' ratings of likelihood that women/men would engage in behaviors positively correlated w/ effect sizes
• - over and understimations also common
• Conclusions
• - beliefs about men/women "in general" accurate
• - underestimate gender differences in research
• - large individual differences in accuracy

• social context is not taken into consideration
• goal in the lab is to remove the social influences, lab is not the real world

• categorization begins in infancy
• social role theory: correspondence bias
• social learning theory: children's expectations, etc. reinforce stereotypes
• rigidity of male gender stereotype
• personality traits are inferred based on behavior

• children's peers
• parental behaviors
• media
• family environments (chores, bedroom accessories and furnishings, toys)

how stereotypes affect how two people interacts

• stereotype: cognitive structure
• prejudice: attitude, behavioral aspect

• indicate attitudes toward women increasingly positive
• used to measure prejudice

• modern sexism
• neosexism
• (correlated, but distinct constructs)

women are great, no discrimination

egalitarian attitudes with some negative feelings toward women

• "old fashioned" racism
• sexism
• heterosexism

• ASI
• hostile sexism
• benevolent sexism

• traditional attitudes toward women's roles
• hostility toward women

• protective paternity
• complementary gender differentiation
• heterosexual intimacy

• take care of women
• girls can't hold paper routes and be out after dark
• women can't hold jobs that will expose them to radiation

• conservative ideology
• religiousity (in terms of taking dogma literally, fundamental sects)
• gender inequality (as assessed by UN GDI and GEM)

• AMI - used less in research than ASI
• hostility toward men
• benevolence toward men
• positive correlation with conservative ideology

• resentment of paternalism
• compensatory gender differentiation
• heterosexual hostility

• maternalism
• complementary gender differentiation
• heterosexual intimacy

• scores positively correlated
• gender inequality
• traditional mate selection (males prefer younger women with good household skills; females prefer older men who are good providers)

• item selection based on sex differences
• passive gay men = feminine
• active lesbians = masculine
• bipolar measure of masculinity-femininity

• attitude-interest analysis test
• MMPI M-F Subscale
• CPI Fe Subscale selected/rescored items from both

• items related by male and female American undergraduates as desirable for women or men
• - masculinity = slightly more socially desirable for men
• - femininity = slightly more socially desirable for women
• orthogonal dimensions
• not based upon sex differences

measures of M and F are independent

• x and y axis
• rank of masculinity and femininity on scale 1 - 7
• below 5 or above 5
• low M and high F = traditional feminine
• low M and low F = indifferenciated
• high M and high F = androgeneous
• high M and low F = traditional masculine

• same as development of BSRI
• refined in 1979 to broaden conceptualization of MF
• M+ (positive instrumental behaviors)
• M- (negative instrumental behaviors)
• F-c (negative communion-related attributes)
• F-va (negative verbal passive-aggressive behavior)
• negative scales show sex differences related to mental health

• only measures instrumental and expressive behaviors; PAQ makes that assumption (despite labels)
• influenced by ethnicity, class, situational factors (ex: American women's scores have become more masculine over time)
• limited conceptions of masculinity and femininity

• addresses criticisms and attempts to assess masculinities and femininities
• interviews of couples from Promise Keepers (Heath, 2003)
• Lisa Diamond's longitudinal research with sexual minority women

• christian masculinity: communication skills while retaining authority from Scripture, emotionally expressive
• function of God's will
• masculinity as experienced in church and family

• participants report changes in gendered traits and behaviors
• attributed to situational factors, developmental processes, partners in relationships