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How do we test for total protein?
refractometer or machine
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What does the refractometer actually test for?
total solids
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What kind of method do the machines use to test for total protein?
biuret method
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Which will have a higher total protein, plasma or serum? Why?
- plasma
- the serum is lower because the clotting factors containing protein are gone
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Where is albumin?
in the liver
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Where is globulin?
in the liver and plasma cells
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What is A:G ratio?
albumin:globulin ratio
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What is the A:G ratio in dogs and horses?
greater than 1
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What is the A:G ratio in cats and cattles?
less than 1
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Albumin comprises of _____ of total protein.
35 - 50%
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What is hypoproteinemia due to?
hypoalbuminemia
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When there is hypoproteinemia what else will you have?
ascites
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What is ascites?
increase fluid in the abdomen
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What does electrophoresis do?
breaks protein down into various fractions
-
What fractions does electrophoresis break the proteins down into?
- albumin
- alpha
- beta
- gamma globulins
-
What are gamma globulins?
antibodies
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What types of animals do we test fibrinogen in?
large animals
-
Why do we test fibrinogen?
to determine infection or neoplasia
-
What kind of sample do we use to test fibrinogen?
- plasma
- can't use serum because fibrinogen is not in serum
-
What kind of anticoagulant do we need to use for testing for fibrinogen?
EDTA and not heparin because heparin may falsely lower the results
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How do we run the fibrinogen test?
- collect blood in a hematocrit tube
- spin down the tubes
- read the TP of one of the tubes
- heat th eother tube in warm water for 3 mintues
- spin down the heated tubes
- read the TP of the heated tube
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What are the two categories of electrolytes?
anions (-) and cations (+)
-
What are the different electrolytes?
-
What kind of electrolye is sodium?
cation
-
What kind of electrolyte is chloride?
anion
-
What kind of electrolyte is potassium?
cation
-
What two electrolytes do we usually see together?
sodium and chloride
-
Sodium is the major ________ cation
interstitial/extracellular
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What is sodium in charge of?
osmotic balance and water distribution throughout the body
-
What is hypernatremia and what does it often indicate?
increased sodium level often an indication of dehydration
-
What happens when there is hypoatremia?
can't concentrate urine
-
What tubes should we avoid when testing for sodium?
sodium-containing anticoagulants (EDTA and sodium heparin)
-
What is the number one extracellular anion?
chloride
-
What is chloride responsible for?
- water distribution
- osmotic pressure
-
What is the major intercellular cation?
potassium
-
Potassium is needed for what types of normal functions?
- muscle, heart, and nerve contractions
- CHO metabolism
-
Why do we need to be careful when administering potassium? What is the safest way to administer potassium and why?
- can cause death
- give PO so that the GI tract can regulate what is being absorbed and what is being disposed of
-
What is hyperkalemia?
increase in potassium
-
What causes hyperkalemia?
- acidosis
- cellular damage or necrosis
- postrenal obstruction
- hemolysis
-
How can we treat hyperkalemia?
fluid therapy
-
What does an overdose of potassium look like?
a heart attack
-
What is hypokalemia?
decrease in potassium
-
What are some causes of hypokalemia?
- inappetance
- renal loss
- alkalosis
- vomiting and diarrhea
-
How can we treat hypokalemia?
fluid therapy with potassium added to the bag
-
What are the clinical signs of hypokalemia?
weakness and muscle flaccidity
-
Which one will we see more in practice, hypokalemia or hyperkalemia?
hypokalemia
-
What kind of sample do we need to use when testing potassium levels?
plasma preferred because platelets may release potassium during the clotting process
-
What type of anticoagulants do we need to avoid when testing potassium
avoid anticoagulants that contain potassium
-
What will happen to potassium levels if there is hemolysis?
will cause a false increase in potassium
-
What kind of blood gases do we test for?
-
Which blood gases require the sample for arterial blood and which blood gases can be run with venous blood?
- arterial blood: pO2, pCO2
- venous blood: HCO3
-
Which tests run blood gases?
-
Where does acid base regulation take place in the body?
-
What are blood gases useful in testing for?
diagnose and treat metabolic acidosis
-
Anything that increases CO2 will cause an animal to be _____.
acidosis
-
Metabolic acidosis is common with _____.
chronic diarrhea and chronic respiratory depression
-
What is the second most common extracellular anion?
bicarbonate
-
What does bicarbonate do?
regulates pH
-
What is the best sample for testing blood gases?
arterial blood and plasma
-
How do we preserve a blood sample to test for blood gases and why?
chill in ice water to prevent RBC glycolysis changing the pH
-
Name the minerals.
- phosphorous
- magnesium
- calcium
-
When do we see an elevated phosphorous?
in renal disease
-
When does magnesium decrease?
in grass tetany in cattle
-
_____ of calcium is found in bones.
99%
-
_____ of calcium does all the dynamic work.
-
What does the 1% of calcium do in the blood?
- muscle contraction
- blood coagulation
- enzyme activity
- ion transfer across membranes
-
What is calcium inversely proportional to?
phosphorous concentration
-
What regulates calcium in the body?
parathormone (comes from the parathyroid on the thyroid gland)
-
What is a decrease in calcium often due to?
diet
-
What could an increase in calcium be due to?
dietary or disease
-
What does calcium correct for?
-
What is hypercalcemia?
too much calcium
-
What can hypercalcemia cause?
renal failure due to excess precipitation out into the soft tissue
-
What is hypocalcemia?
decrease in calcium
-
What can hypocalcemia cause?
- milk fever
- puerperal tetany, eclampsia
- dystocia
-
What causes hypocalcemia?
calcium isn't moving fast enough from the bone to the blood
-
What can of sample do we need when we are testing calcium levels
- plasma
- no EDTA or oxalate tubes
-
Where is inorganic phosophorous?
80% in bones
-
What does the other 20% of inorganic phosphorous do?
- energy storage, release, and transfer
- CHO metabolism
- buffers
- nucleic acids, phospholipids
-
Where is organic phosphorous found?
RBCs
-
What parts of blood are inorganic phosphorous found?
plasma and serum
-
What does hemolysis do to phosphorous?
elevates it
-
What is hyperphosphatemia?
increase in phosphorous levels
-
What does hyperphosphatemia do to calcium levels?
decreases them and causes hypocalcemia
-
What can cause hyperphosphatemia?
calcium deficient diets
-
Where is magnesium in the body?
- in all body tissue
- 50% in bones
-
What does magnesium do?
production and decomposition of Ach
-
The Mg:Ca ratio is important to what?
muscle function
-
What types of animals do we see hypomagnesemia in?
ruminants
-
What type of coagulant should we use when collecting blood to test for magnesium levels?
heparin
-
What does hemolysis do to magnesium?
elevates it
-
What are some other minerals that require specific tests?
- lead
- mercury
- arsenic
- thallium
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