Bio 203

a bilayer of phospholipid molecules forms the framework of the plasma membrane

consist of a chain of amino acids joined by covalent bonds called peptide bonds

• albumin
• laminin
• collagen and colagen IV
• keratin
• hemoglobin
• all enzymes
• elasin
• actin
• myosin
• fibrillin

unusual proteins that have enormous amounts of carbohydrate covalently bound to them. Found in the basement membrane and in he matrix of connecive tissue. Importan in holding water in the tissue and maintaining hydration

• Phosphate group
• five-carbon sugar
• one of the following 5 nitrogenous organic bases
• -adenine
• -guanine
• -cytosine
• -thymine( only in DNA)
• -uracil (only in RNA)

consists of a string of nucleotides

• lipids and glycolipids; include phospholipids and cholesterol
• proteins and glycoproteins
• carbohydrates
• can have microvilli

• endoplasmic reticulum
• ribosomes
• Golgi
• mitochondria
• lysosomes
• peroxisomes
• centrosomes
• cilia; flagella
• vesicles
• microfilaments
• mirotubules
• inclusions

• nuclear envelope
• nucleolus
• chromatin (DNA and protein)
• nuclear matrix

• tight junctions
• desmosomes
• gap junctions

• diffusion
• facilitated diffusion
• osmosis (special case of diffusion involving water passing through the pores made up of aquaporins)
• endocytosis
• exocytosis
• active transport

• enzymes
• coenzymes
• oxidation
• metabolism of glucose
• fatty acids
• amino acids

the removal of 2 hydrogen atoms at a time

addition of hydrogen atoms to a molecule

a gene is a string of nucleotides in the DNA of the nucleus

• methionine
• glycine
• serine
• alanine
• phenylalanine

Signals start at the beginning of a coding region of all genes

folds the newly formed peptide chain

ubiquitin. The ubiquitinylated proteins are then recognized by the proteasome that destroys the tagged protein.

• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids Nucleotides

Include: sugars, which are burned by the cells of the body to produce energy:

• Include: sugars, which are burned by the cells of the body to produce energy-
• Monosaccharides- ex: Five-Carbon
• Disaccharides- ex: Sucrose
• Polysaccharides- ex: Glycogen

• Triglycerides= Fats ex: glycerol + 3 fatty acids
• Steriods- ex: testosterone
• Phospholipids- ex: phosphatidycholine

• Nitrogen-containing base
• 5- carbon sugar
• One or more phosphate groups
• (DNA, RNA, ATP)

heat will break hydrogen bonds, causing disorganization of the protein structure and loss of its unique properties. If an enzyme it will cease to function.

involve a change (mutation) in one amino acid in an important protein ( such as an enzyme or structural protein) 

• Molecules
• Cells
• Tissues (made of cells)
• Organs (groups of tissues)
• Systems (groups of organs)

• Superior: towards the head
• Inferior: away from the head

• Anterior: toward the front
• Posterior: towards the back

• Medial: towards the midline
• Lateral: towards the side
• Ipsilateral: same side
• Conralateral: opposite side

• Proximal: towards the main mass of the body
• Distal: away from the main mass of the body

• Superficial: towards the surface of the body
• Deep: away from the surface of the body

• Central: at the center
• Peripheral: around the side

Divides the body into left and right portions

Divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) segments

Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions

diffusion of water through the cell membrane

• G1
• S
• G2
• Repeat

• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase

• the process of cells dividing, eventually the daughter cells start looking different from one another
• (each cell contains same genetic information encoded in the DNA of its nucleus, some genes are turned off and others on)

provide time for DNA repair and editing, and help prevent cancer, happen before and afer replication of cells

cell suicide (programmed cell death) ex: neurons die within the developing brain and self-reactive lymphocytes are purged within the thymus gland

• Hypertonic solution: shrinks
• Hypotonic solution: expands
• Isotonic solution: no difference

the process of regulation in the human body

• Food
• Water
• Oxygen
• Warmth

• body temperature
• oxygen level in blood and tissues
• pH of blood and body fluid
• salt content
• glucose level in blood
• metabolic waste product levels

balances change in the body

• function
• shape
• ability to move

endoscopy (endoscopes)- insert into body opening or small surgical incision

• X-rays
• CAT
• PET
• MRI
• Ultrasonography

• Tight junctions: seal space between cells, segregate proteins (between cells in epithelial sheet)
• Desmosomes: hold cells together (between cells in skin)
• Gap junctions: communicating junctions (cardiac muscle)

• Nuclear envelope
• Nucleolus
• Chromatin

movement of molecules from a high concentration to a lower concentration

Substances that are insoluble in lipids are helped across the cell membrane involving special carrier proteins

special case of diffusion where aquaporins form channels for water to pass through

substances pass from regions of high concentration to lower concentration

• large particles that are too large to enter the cell by diffsion or active transport enter the cell by a process that involves pinching in a portion of the cell membrane to form an intracellular vesicle
• Phagocytosis-cell eating

opposite of endocytosis (release content)

Starts in the middle of anaphase and is complete at end of telophase

inactivation or loss causes cancer

activation causes cancer

accidental cell death, not suicide (apoptosis)

An oocyte is taken and the nucleus is removed. Using electric pulses, it is then fused with a differentiated donor cell complete with nucleus taken fom an adult.

• synthesis of new molecules, uses energy
• Ex: glycogen, fat, and protein synthesis

• breakdown of molecues, generates energy
• Ex: Polysaccharides into monosaccarides, proteins into amino acids and fatty acids ino glycerol

• proteins that act as catalysts for specific chemical reactions
• functions: speed up reactions, but not consumed

• add suffix -ase to the name of the substrate
• ex: lipid --> lipase
• ex: protein--> protease

• Metal ions
• Coenzymes

• iron
• calcium
• cobalt
• copper
• magnesium
• manganese
• molybdenum
• zinc

Cyanide: interfere with respiratory enzymes in the mitochondria and kill cells by halting their ability to make ATP

• 1. glycolysis
• 2. formation of acetyl coenzyme A
• 3. addition of the acetyl two-carbon fragment to oxaloacetic acid to form citric acid in the Krebs cycle
• 4. the electron transport chain

Heart

Removal of nitrogen-containing group, combined with carbon dioxide, and converted into the waste urea, is then excreted via the urine

Rates of enzyme-controlled reactions ofen depend on the concentrations of substrate and enzyme molecules. Negative-feedback controls the rate the product is generated.

• gene silencing by DNA methylation-epigenetics
• post-transcriptional gene silencing by small interfering RNAs

• pH
• Temperature

• Nutrition- vitamins
• Nutrition- minerals
• Hormones
• -growth
• -calcitonin
• -sex
• -parathyroid
• -thyroid
• Exercise
• Aging

• nearly all enzymes are proteins
• structural components of the cell such as collagen and elastin
• ion channels in the plasma membrane
• receptors for hormones and neurotransmitters
• contractile elements of muscle such as actin and myosin
• antibodies

• Coding region
• Regulatory regions

in the chromosomes of the nucleus

• A DNA molecule consists of 2 strands
• A RNA molecule consists of 1 strand

• the 2 strands of DNA twist around each other to form a stisted ladder or double helix. 
• the uprights consist of alternating sugar and phosphate groups
• the rungs consist of paired nitrogenous bases, one form each strand and are held together by hydrogen bonds
• A-T
• G-C

• Messenger- mRNA
• Ribosomal- rRNA
• Transfer- tRNA
• U instead of T

the copying process of a nucleotide sequence

• Messenger RNA
• Ribosomes
• Transfer RNAs (one for each amino acid)
• Amino acids
• ATP to drive the process

During interphase, the DNA inherited from the parent cell must be replicated so that when the cell divides again, a faithful copy can be passed on to each of the two daughter cells.

Th chromatids are pulled apart at anaphase, after which they are called chromosomes again.

• incorrect pairing of bases during DNA replication
• insertions of extra bases or deletion of a base or bases during replication
• expansion in numbers of "triplet or trinucleotide repeats
• whole sections of DNA may be deleted, transposed or other parts reversed or inserted into other chromosomes

DNA carrying the normal gene is incorporated into the patient's cells by: engineered viruses or liposomes

hold water and maintain tissue hydration

• thin and flattened, substances diffuse easily through them
• Lines the lungs and interiors of blood vessels

• single layer of cube-shaped cells
• function: secretion and absorption
• found: kidney tubules, lines ducts of various glands

• thicker than cuboidal
• found: gut and uterus
• function: provide protection for underlying tissue, secretion and absorption

• nuclei at different levels, looks stratified
• lines passages of respiraory tubes (cilia present)

• protective
• found: mouth, throat, vagina, anal canal

• Stretchable
• found: urinary bladder

• (inside) endocrine glands secrete hormones
• (outside) exocrine glands secrete into the surface

• serous merocrine-watery secretions
• mucous merocrine- thick secretions

apocrine gland (sweat gland)- hair follicles in the skin

• binds structures together
• supports and protects
• serves as a framework
• fills up space
• stores fat
• in some places, generates blood cells
• protects against infection
• helps repair tissue damage

• Fibroblasts: produce fibers
• Macrophages: phagocytize cellular debris
• Mast cells: produce substances important to signalling other cells and chemicals
• White blood cells: numbers increase during inflammation following infection by pathogens
• Chondrocytes and osteocytes: specialized cells found in bone

• Collagenous fibers: white fibers composed of collagen
• Elastic fibers: yellow fibers composed of elastin and fibrillin

gel-like material composed of proteoglycans

• composed of callogenous and elastic fibers
• found surrounding blood vessels, nerves, muscle fibers, muscle groups and binding skin to underlying muscles
• uses flexibility and strengh

• contains cells called adipocytes
• found below the skin, around mnay organs (hear and kidney), around the eyes, and between joints
• stores fat, fills space, cushions and holds organs in place, acts as a shock absorber, insulates, and ies shape to the body surfaces
• the nucleus is pushed to the side as the amount of fat inceases, and tissue takes on a characteristic foamy appearance

• composed of callogen fibers that are densely packed and arranged parallel to the direction of the force with few elastin fibers
• forms tendons (muscle to bone), ligaments (bone to bone) and aponeuroses (sheet like tendons connecting muscle to muscle or bone)
• poor blood supply making healing process slow
• Strength in one direction

• composed of callogen fibers that are densely packed and interwoven with few elastin fibers
• provides strength in all directions
• found in the dermis of skin, sheaths covering muscles, nerves and in the adventitia of blood vessels, also forms capsules covering organs, joints and making up the sclera of the eye and membrane coering cartilage and bone
• limited blood supply making the healing process very slow

• composed of elastin arranged parallel or irregular branching patters with few callogencan be stretched out about one and a half times its size, and can return to its original length by elastic recoil
• found in the walls of arteries, trachea and lngs, larynx, and between adjacent vertebrae 

• composed of thin collagen fibers
• provides a supporting framework for the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes.

• avascular (contains no blood vessels) 
• slow to heal
• contains callogen and elastic fibers, produced by chondrocytes that occur singularly or in groups within cavities in the cartilage matrix called lacunae

• found at the end of bones, in the nose, larynx, trachea, ribs and respiratory tubes
• composed of a matrix containing callogenous fibrs
• most common causes no friction between bones

• contains elastic fibers
• found in the larynx and ear flaps

• tensile strenth, weight-bearing properties, and is resistant to stretch and compression
• many visible collagenous fibers
• found in areas of the body where it can act as a shock absorber and found between the vertebrae and in joints

• has tensile strength and resistance to compression.
• serves for support and protection (ribs and skull) 
• long bones form levers muscles can act on
• the unit of compact bone is the osteon

• many nuclei
• voluntary
• striation

• no striations
• 1 nucleus
• contract involuntary

• striated
• 1 nucleus
• involuntary and spontaneous

• Mucous: line all structures that open to the outside of your body (reproductive tract)
• Serous: line body cavities that do not open to the exterior (thorax, abdomen)
• Cutaneous: an organ of the integumentary system (skin)

• Protection
• Regulation of body temperature
• Excretion
• Sensation
• Synthesis of vitamin D