Intro to Human Anatomy & Physiology :: Unit 1

Anatomy is structured according to the functions associated with its use

• Responsiveness
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Movement
• Metabolism

RGRM²

Protons, Neutrons, Electrons

Protons and Neutrons are located within the nucleus of an atom whereas the Electrons are located on the electron shell/cloud.

Protons are positive. Neutrons are neutral. Electrons are negative.

Only 2 electrons can fill up the first ring. Then 2nd and 3rd rings, only a total of 8 electrons per ring.

For stability, the atoms try to find other potential atom with a spare electrons to share or "receive" from. In an attempt to fill up the ring.

Ionic and Covalent

Covalent is typically stronger than Ionic bonding. Covalent shares its electron unlike Ionic where it may gain or loses an electron to another atom.

An ion is the result of an atom losing or gaining an electron turning it into a charged particle (+ or -)

a liquid containing dissolved ions

• Polar molecule is the unequal sharing of electrons (H₂O)
• Non-Polar molecule is an equal sharing of electrons (CH₄)

molecules are held together by a number of forces

important intermolecular/intramolecular bond that is weak and quickly broken

occurs only through Polar Covalent molecules (such as water)

ability of an organism to maintain its internal environment

Positive and Negative Feedback

Negative Feedback: variation outside normal limits triggers automatic corrective response, negating disturbances

Positive Feedback: stimulus produces response that reinforces the stimulus, response rapidly completes critical process

healthy normal range of values for a specific factor of the internal environment

oxygen, CO₂, waste products, pH, blood volume, pressure, nutrients

Fever: body temperature increases due to foreign organisms within the body, body attempts to kill it by raising temperature, once body is within a safe limit, temperature drops to normal

• Anatomy: Study of structure/form
• ::Gross - features of the organism that can be seen with the naked eye
• ::Surface - all of the superficial & internal features of a specific region of the body

• Physiology: Study of functions
• ::Cell - study of the functions of living cells
• ::Pathophysiology - study of the effects of diseases on cellular, organ, and organ system function

new chemical bonds are formed between atoms and/or existing bonds are broken

sum of all chemical reactions

Ability to do work

stored energy

motion

First Law: Energy can change from one form to another and from one state to another but can never be lost

Second Law: all objects in the universe are disordered and is continually increasing

breaks a molecule into smaller fragments (catabolism)

complex molecule is broken down in the presence of water and the components of water are added to the fragments

Ex) food digestion

reactions that assemble larger molecules from smaller parts (anabolism)

formation of a complex molecule by the removal of water

Ex) removal of a hydrogen from H2O between molecules

the parts of the reacting molecules are shuffled around (recombination)

• Temperature: enzymes work best at a certain temperature, but in general higher temperatures mean faster reactions
• Concentration: higher concentration of substrate increases the speed of the reaction
• Surface Area:
• Catalyst:

amount of energy required to start a reaction

• Catalysts reduce activation energy to speed reaction
• -Enzymes catalyze cellular reactions

Proteins that lower the free energy of activation needed for the chemical reaction to take place at cellular temperatures

• Enzyme Functions
• I) Substrate (reactant) binds causing a conformational change
• II) Enzyme promotes product formulation
• III) Product detached and enzyme is free to repeat process

one or more grooves/furrows on the enzyme surface into which reactants nestle

Specificity: only one type of reaction can be catalyzed by each enzyme

Saturation limit: all enzymes have a top speed at which they can operate

Regulation: enzymes can be active at some times and deactivated at others

Cohesion: ability of water to form bonds with itself

Adhesion: ability of water to form bonds with other stuff

Capillary action: ability of water to draw things into it

reaction of an acid with a base usually producing a salt and water

Acids:

Bases: chemical compound that accepts a proton and causes water to contain less H+ so the pH will be higher than 7

neutral pH is 7 (meaning equal number of hydrogen and hydroxide ions);

each change represents 10X less or more concentration of H+

solution containing weak acid and its coordinating weak base (often in salt form) such that when acid or base is added, there is little change in pH

organic compounds that make up living things

composed of a carbon-based core with various functional gruops which define functional properties of the substance

the fuel and building materials of all organisms

contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen where concentration of Hydrogen to Oxygen atoms is 2:1

Monosaccharides (simple sugars of 3 to 7 carbons) - Glucose, Ribose

Disaccharides - two monosaccharides joined together - Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose

Polysaccharides - two or more monosaccharides are linked together through condensation reactions - Glycogen

Starch -

Glycogen - carbohydrate storage in animals (Stockpiles of glocygen found in the liver and muscles for short term energy)

Cellulose -

short term energy storage

ATP is adenosine triphosphate - composed of the nucleotide adenine and three phosphates

the 3rd phosphate attached to the ATP is released for cellular activities

• I) basic building blocks of all animals and plants
• II) smallest functional units of life
• III) products of cell division
• IV) basic homeostatic units

a unit whose complex internals are enclosed by a membrane

prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Lipid biplayer containing phospholipids, steroids, proteins and carbohydrates

Function: Isolation, Protection, Sensitivity, Support, Gatekeeper

Surrounds the cell

microtubules

Function: movement of material over cell surface

Function: movement

Located: outside of cell

Membrane extensions containing microfilaments

Function: Increase surface area to facilitate absorption of extracellular materials

Located: outside of cell

contains dissolved nutrients, ions, soluable and insoluable proteins and waste products

network of membranous channels extending throughout the cytoplasm

Function: modifies and packages newly synthesized proteins

Location: within the cell

network of membranous channels extending throughout the cytoplasm

Function: synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates

Located: within the cell

stacks of falttened membranes (cisternae) containing chambers

Function: storage, alteration and packaging of secretory products and lysosomal enzymes

Located: within the cell

vesicles containing digestive enzymes

Function: intracellular removal of damaged organelles or pathogens

Located: within the cell

vesicles containing degradative enzymes

Function: catabolism of fats and other organic compounds, neutralization of toxic compounds generated in the process

Located: within the cell

double membrane, with inner membrane folds (cristae) enclosing important metabolic enzymes

Function: produce 95% of the ATP required by the cell

Located: within the cell

Function: site of rRNA synthesis and assembly of ribosomal subunits

Located: within the nucleus

nucleoplasm containing neucleotides, enzymes, nucleoproteins, and chromatin; surrounded by a double membrane, the nuclear envelope

Function: control of metabolism; storage and processing of genetic information; control of protein synthesis

Located: within the cell