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What activities are included in the cognition term?
remembering, classifying, dreaming
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The main difference between domain-general changes and domain-specific changes is that:
the former term accounts for transformations across all types of knowledge and the latter accounts for transformations within each type of knowledge
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Due to his background, Piaget's theory of cognition has a distinctly ______ flavor.
biological
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Piaget held that all individuals:
move through the same sequences of stages
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What Piagetian term is most similar to idea?
scheme
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The ability to find objects that have been moved while out of sight (invisible displacement) is achieved in Piaget's:
mental representation stage
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Animism is...
attributing the characteristics of living things to objects
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The child who believes that the liquid in the taller container is greater in volume than the same liquid poured from the broader container has failed to develop:
conservation
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Seriation is defined as:
the ability to arrange items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight
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The term mental rotaitons means:
the ability to align one's frame to match another person's in a different orientation
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Cognitive maps are defined as:
mental representations of large-scale spaces
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______ is a problem-solving strategy in which adolescents begin with a general theory of all possible factors that could affect an outcome in a problem and deduce specific hypotheses, which they test in an orderly fashion.
hypothetico-deductive reasoning
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_______ is adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern.
imaginary audience
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Vygotsky believed that you could best understand cognition by studying children's:
speech
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A Vygotskian classroom promotes...
cooperative learning, peer collaboration, and reciprocal teaching
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Piaget and cognition
- constructivist approach
- - biological side of cognitive development
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constructivist approach
Piaget viewed children as discovering, or constructing, virtually all knowledge about their world through their own activity
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Vygotsky and cognition
- - sociocultural theory
- - viewed human cognition as inherently social and language-based
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Piaget's Stages
- - stages provide a general theory of development
- - the stages are inariant; they always occur in the same order, and not one stage can be skipped
- - stages are universal; apply to every child
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schemes
- - specific psychological structures
- - organized ways of making sense of experienec
- - change with age
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adaptation
building schemes through direct interaction with the environment
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assimilation
we use our current schemes to interpret the external world
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accommodation
we create new schemes or adjust old ones after noticing that our current way of thinking does not capture the environment completely
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organization
- a process that occurs internally and apart from direct contact with the environment
- - once children form new schemes, they rearrange them and link them with other schemes
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equilibrium
the basic process underlying the human ability to adapt—is the search for balance between self and the world
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disequilibrium
not having equilibrium
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what conditions cause changes in schemes?
adaptation and organization
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sensorimotor stage
- - spans the first two years of life
- - Piaget's belief that infants and toddlers "think" with their eyes, ears, hands and other sensorimotor equipment
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circular reaction
- a special means of adapting their first schemes
- - involves stumbling onto a new experience caused by the baby's own motor activity
- - reaction is "circular" because infant tries to repeat event again and again
- - chance becomes strengthened into a new scheme
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primary circular reactions
- simple motor habits centered around the infant's own body
- - limited anticipation of events
- - largely motivated by basic needs
- ex: sucking fist or thumb, open mouth differently for a nipple vs. spoon
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secondary circular reactions
- actions aimed at repeating interesting effects in the surrounding world
- - imitation of familiar behaviors
- ex: hitting
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tertiary circular reactions
- - exploration of the properties of objects by acting on them in novel ways
- - imitation of novel behaviors
- - ability to search in several locations for a hidden object
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object permanence
the understanding that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight
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deferred imitation
the ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not parent
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violation-of-expectation method
- - used to discover what infants know about hidden objects and other aspects of physical reality
- - researchers habituate babies to a physical event to familiarize them with a situation
- - heightened attention to the unexpected even suggests that the even is surprised by a deviation from physical reality
- - therefore, child is aware of that aspect of the physical world
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mental representaition
infants as young as 8 months can recall the locaiton of a hidden object after delays of more than a minute
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make-believe play
- children act out everyday and imaginary activities
- 1. play increasingly detaches from real-life conditions associated with it
- 2. play becomes less self-centered
- 3. play includes more complex combinations of schemes
- benefits: emotionally integrative function; results in social competency
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preoperational stage
- - spans 2 to 7 yrs old
- - extraordinary increase in mental representation
- - make believe play
- - drawings move from scribbles, to representational forms, to realistic drawings
- - symbol-real world relations
- - egocentric and animistic thinking
- - inability to conserve
- - lack of hierarchical classification
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egocentrism
the failure to distinguish others' symbolic viewpoints from one's own
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centration
- - their understanding is centered
- - they focus on one aspect of a situation, neglecting other important features
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conservation
the idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes
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reversibility
the ability to go thorugh a series of steps in a problem and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point
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magical thinking
the belief in supernatural powers and creatures
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categorization
a child's everyday knowledge is organized into nested categories at an early age
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appearance vs. reality
- preschoolers have difficulty distinguishing between what an object is when it might look like something else
- ex: a candle that looks like a crayon; a rock that looks like an egg
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hierarchal classifications
the organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences
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concrete operational stage
- - 7 to 11 years old
- - major turning point in cognitive development
- - thought becomes more logical, flexible and organized
- - passes conservation
- - more aware of classification hierarchies
- - seriation
- - spatial reasoning
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seriation
the ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight
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transitive interference
the concrete operational child can also seriate mentally
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mental rotation
aligning the self's frame to match that of a person in a different orientation
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cognitive maps
children's mental representations of familiar large-scale spaces
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limitations of concrete operational thought
- - children have a gradual mastery of logical concepts (continuum of acquisition)
- - its not universal, depends on environment
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the formal operations stage
- - 11 yrs +
- - develop the capacity for abstract, systematic, scientific thinking
- - hypothetico-deductive reasoning
- - propositional thought
- - imaginary audience
- - personal fable
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hypothetico-deductive reasoning
when faced with a problem, adolescence start with a hypothesis from which they deduce logical, testable inferences
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propositional thought
adolescents' ability to evaluate the logic of propositions (verbal statements) without referring to real-world circumstances
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imaginary audience
adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern
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personal fable
because teenagers are sure that others are observing and thinking about them, they develop an inflated opinion of their own importance - a feeling that they are special and unique
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Vygotsky's view of the development of thought
- - infants are endowed with basic perceptual, attention and memory capacities that they share with other animals
- - develop in first two years of life through direct contact with environment
- - rapid language growth leads to profound change in thinking
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private speech
- children's self-directed speech
- - children use private speech when tasks are appropriately challenging, after they make errors, when they are confused about how to proceed
- - used to guide their thinking and behavior
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zone of proximal development
a range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the help of adults and more skiled peers
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intersubjectivity
the process whereby two participants who begin a task with different understandings arrive at a shared understanding
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scaffolding
adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance
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guided participation
a broader concept than scaffolding that refers to shared endeavors between more expert and less expert participants, without specifying the precise features of communication
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Vygotsky's view of make-believe play
- - a unique, broadly influential zone of proximal development
- - children advance themselves as they try out a wide variety of challenging skills
- - the central source of development during preschool years
- - leads development through learning to act in accord with internal ideas
- - they realize that thinking is separate from objects and that ideas can be used to guide behavior
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reciprocal teaching
- a teacher and two to four students form a collaborative group and take turns leading dialogues on the content of a text passage
- - group members apply cognitive stages: questioning, summarizing, clarifying and predicting
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cooperative learning
small groups of classmates work toward common goals
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