Anatomy Midterm A

Standing up, facing forward with upper extremities at side and the palms of the hands facing out with the pinkie closest to the body.

• -Midsagittal
• -Parasagittal
• Up and Down cuts

A vertical plane that passes through the midline of the body and divides the body in equal right and left sides

A vertical plane that does not pass through the midline of the body and which divides the body into unequal right and left sides

A vertical plane at a right angle to the midsagittal plane which divides the body or an organ into anterior and posterior portions

• A plane that is parallel to the ground, therefore at a right angle to the midsagittal plane and divides the body or an organ into superior and inferior portions
• Can also be called a cross section

Slanted, at an angle

More toward the head end of the body or toward the upper end or surface of a body part

More toward the feet, or toward the lower end or surface of a body part

More toward the front surface of the body or an organ

More toward the back or rear surface of the body or an organ

Toward the midline of the body or an organ or as viewed as the midline

Away from the midline of the body or an organ, or as viewed from the side

Nearer the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Further from the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

More near the surface of the body

Further away from the surface of the body

• Cranial cavity (brain)
• Vertebral (spinal) cavity (spinal cord)

• Thoracic Cavity
• -Right pleural cavity
• -left pleural cavity
• -Mediastinum (everything but the lungs)
• --Pericardial Cavity (Around the heart)
• Abdominal Cavity
• -Abdominal cavity
• -Pelvic Cavity

• Integumentary
• Digestive
• Skeletal
• Cardiovascular
• Lymphatic
• Nervous
• Muscular
• Endocrine
• Urinary
• Reproductive
• Respiratory

• Domain: Eukarya
• Kingdom: Animalia
• Phylum: Chordata (has to have a dorsal hollow nerve cord)
• Sub Phylum: Vertebrata (backbone)
• Class: Mamalia (Hair)
• Order: Primates
• Family: Homindae
• Species: Homosapien

• 1. Symmetry-bilateral
• 2. Repeatin segmentation
• 3. Tube within a tube design
• 4. Dorsal hollow berve cord which become the brain and spinal cord
• 5. Vertebral column (back bone)

• Atoms
• Molecules
• Organelle
• Cells
• Tissues
• Organs
• Organ system
• Organism

Study of cells

Study of tissues

• Epithelial
• Connective
• Muscle
• Nervous

• Cover surfaces
• Line Cavities
• Glands

most prominent and most diverse in fxn

ability to contract

initiate elecrtrical impulses

• cells are tightly packed and numerous
• cells can either be clumped-glandualar ET or act like sheets-covering and lining
• Polarity-apical vs basal
• Avascular-no blood supply
• Innervated-have nerves
• Highly regenerative

• Tight Jxn.
• Fluid tight seal. "sewn" together with proteins
• Cells control fluid movement as fluid cannot pass through tight junctions

Anchor cells to resist stretch.

• Like a tunnel or pore
• Connects cytoplasm of one cell to another
• Allows rapid communication between cells

• There is an apical (free) surface and a basal surface
• Basal surface sits on basement membrane and attaches to underlying CT. The membrane is made by both ET and CT

No blood supply becasue cells are so tightly packed

ET is fed by underlying CT. Vascular CT metabolically supports the ET

Has nerves

• ET tissues are highly regenerative. They divide very quickly because they are highly mitotic.
• ET's are also the fastest to heal for this reason

Simple

Stratified

Pseudostratified

Squamous

Cuboidal

Columnar

Transitional

• Goblet Cells-secrete mucus
• Cilia-sweep materials across surface
• Microvilli-fold of plasma membrane to increase surface area. Absorbing or secreting

• Thinnest possible ET
• Rapid diffusion/osmosis or filtration

• Alveoli in lungs
• Lining all blood vessels lining the lumen
• Artery and veins

• Endothelium-lining blood vessels
• Endocardium-lining the heart
• Mesothelium-inserous membrane ?

Active transport-absorption or secretion

• Some kidney tubules and ducts
• Special: can have microvilli in some kidney tubules

Active transport and somewhat stronger than cuboidal

• Lining hte stomach-no modifications
• Special: In small intesting they can have microvilli and goblet cells
• Cilia in uterine tubes

• Protection from friction.
• Cells are dead at free surface

• Lining the mouth
• Down the esophagus
• Lining the vagina
• Special: Keratinized (apical cells full of keratin-waterproof)
• In epidermis keratin is tough

Allow distension without tearing

• Urinary bladder
• Ureters
• Special-NONE
• Nuclei at apical surface always look healthy-not dead

Protection

• Vas defrens
• Special: stereocilia in epididymis

• Upper respiratory tract-trachea
• Nuclei are at multiple levels. If it's not squamous or transitional than it's this one!

Warm, humidify, and filter inhaled air

• Specialized for secretion
• Develops by invagination

• Endocrine Gland
• Exocrine Gland

• Secretes hormones into the blood stream
• Chemical messengers

Secretes product through a duct to free surface

• Sweat glands
• Salivary glands
• Mammary glands

• Unicellular-goblet cells (mucin makes mucus)
• Multicellular are classified by type of secreton (3 Types)

• 1.Merocryn secretion: uses exocytosis
• Ex: salivary glands (saliva)
• 2. Holocrine secretion (Whole Cell) Whole cell fills with product than pinches off
• Ex: Sebaceous gland (sebum) oil that covers the skin
• 3. Apocrine secretion-apical portion pinches off of cell
• Ex: Mammary glands-milk

• Uses exocytosis
• Ex: salivary glands (saliva)

• Whole cell fills with product than pinches off
• Ex: Sebaceous gland (sebum) Oil that covers the skin

• Apical portion pinches off of cell
• Ex: Mammary glands (milk)

• Forms the outer, limiting barrier separating the internal contents of the cell from the external environment
• Phospholipid bilayer containing cholesterol and proteins and some are carbs.
• Contains receptors for communication. Forms intercellular connections. Regulates material movement into and out of the cell

• Site of metabolic processes of the cell
• Stores nutrients and dissolved solutes

• Provides support for organelles
• Serves as viscous medium through which difusion occurs

Carry out specific metabolic activites of the cell

• Acts as control center
• Controls all genetic information (DNA)
• Site of ribosome subunit assembly

Pores in envelope regulate exchange of materials within the cytoplasm

Synthesizes rRNA and assembles ribosomes in the nucleus

• Synthesizes lipids
• metabolizes carbs
• Detoxifies drugs and alcohol

• Synthesizes proteins for secretion, new proteins for the plasma membrane and lysosomal enzymes
• Transports and stores molecules

Modifies, packages, and sorts newly synthesized proteins for secretion, inclusion  in new plasma membrane or lysosomal enzyme synthesis

• Digest materials or microbes ingested by the cell
• Remove old/damaged organelles
• Self-destruct (autolyze)

• Synthesize most ATP during cellular respiration
• "Powerhouses of cells" Nick hates this term!

Phospholipid bilayer containing cholesterol and proteins (integral and peripheral) and some carbohydrates (externally)

Contains cytosol, a viscous fluid and inclusions and organelles

• Surrounded by a double membrane nuclear envelope (each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer)
• Contains nucleolus and chromatin

Spherical, dark staining, dense, granular region in the nucleus

Filamentous association of DNA and histone proteins

• Dense cytoplasmic granules with two subunits (large and small)
• May be free in cytoplasm (free ribosomes) or bound to rough ER (Fixed ribosomes)

• Synthesize proteins for:
• 1. use in the cell (free ribosomes)
• 2. Secretion, incorporation into plasma membrane, or lysosomes (fixed ribosomes)

• Flattened, intercellular network of membrane sacs called cisternae
• Ribosomes attached on cytoplasmic surface

• Interconnected network of membrane tubules and vesicles
• no ribosomes

Stacked series of flattened smooth membrane sacs with associated shuttle vessicles

• Double membrane structures with cristae.
• Fluid matrix contents at center

Membrane sacs filled with digestive enzymes

• Developed from embryonic tissue-mesenchyme
• Never face a free surface
• Vascularization varies
• Innervated (mostly)
• Cells are more widely spaced in matrix
• Few cell jxns.
• Ground substance
• Protein fibers

• Cells
• Ground substance
• Protein fibers

• Variable!
• Connection
• Support-Physical (holding body together) and metabolic
• Etc...

• 1. Fluid
• 2. Gelatinous
• 3. Solid

• Water and dissolved solutes
• AKA blood plasma

• water with dissolved solutes (fluid gs) and large molecules like:
• -GAGs-hydrophillic and large. Traps water and makes gel
• -Glycoproteins-act like glue. Something for cells and fibers to adhere to. Provides traction for movement

• Gel gs plus minerals
• -Maximizes strength
• -Calcium salts
• Bone is the only thing with solid ground substance

• 1. Fluid
• 2. Supporting
• 3. CT Proper

Blood and lymph

Fluid ground substance

• Makes up your skeleton
• Cartilage (composed of gel ground substance)
• Bone tissue (composed of solid ground substance)

Has gelatinous CT

• 1. Collagen Fibers
• 2. Elastic Fibers
• 3. Reticular Fibers

• strongest and most prevalent
• "White fibers"
• Pink and wavy bundles on the microscope

• Thinner and somewhat branched
• Not as strong as collagen
• These can stretch and recoil

• "Network"
• Thinnest and highly branched
• Fxn. Form a network called stroma-forms a framework for suspending cells
• Usually found where fluid flows
• Requires a special stain

It is an immature cell and it secretes something

It is a mature cell

• 1. Fibroblasts
• 2. Adipocyte
• 3. Fixed Macrophage

• Most abundant
• Make fiber. Need these to repair
• Make ground substance, proteins, and fibers
• Make scars
• Can mature to become fibrocytes-these maintain tissues

• Fat cells
• Store a lipid droplet
• *Peripheral nucleus
• Energy and insulation

• "Big eaters"
• Phagocytosis
• Phagocytize pathogens and damaged tissue
• Clean up crew
• Attract other macrophages for back up

• 1. Mast Cells
• 2. Plasma Cells
• 3. Wandering Macrophage
• 4. Etc.

• Initiate inflammatory response by releasing"
• -Histamine-vasodilator
• -Heparin-anticoagulant (stops blood from clotting)
• Cytoplasm looks grainy under the microscope. These are vessicles filled with product

• Derived from WBCs
• Make and secrete antibodies-antibodies attach to an antigen
• Nucleus has a wagon wheel shape under microscope because chromatin pattern. There is an empty space where the golgi body is to package Abs. This is called the golgi shadow

Phagocytize pathogens and damaged tissues

Loose and Dense

• Ground substance and cells is greater than fiber
• 1. Areolar CT
• 2. Adipose CT
• 3. Reticular CT

• Makes a delicate web like packing material
• Fxn. usually filling spaces and binding. Metabolic support of ET
• Ex: Papillary layer of dermis and hypodermis

• Fxn: Energy storage, insulation, cushioning
• Ex: Hypodermis, perirenal fat (kidneys)
• Compare this to glandular ET. glandular has ducts though!

• Forms stroma and requires special stain
• Fxn: Suspend cells often for filtration
• Ex: Lymph node and spleen

• Fibers are greater than cells and ground substance
• Poorly vascularized
• 1. Dense regular
• 2. Dense Irregular
• 3. Elastic

• Loose CT has more ground substance and cells compared to fibers while dense CT has more fibers than it does ground substance and cells
• Loose CT is well vascularized which makes these tissues easier to heal compared to a poorly vascularized dense CT

• Collagen fibers run parallel
• Fxn: Resist pull in ONE direction
• Ex: tendons (attach muscle to bone) and ligaments (bone to bone)
• Poor blood supply-slower to heal

• Collagen runs in many directions
• Fxn: Resist pull in multiple directions
• Ex: Reticular layer of dermis and periosteum (around bone)

• Lots of elastic and collagen fibers
• Fxn: Recoil after deformation
• Ex: Aorta wall and vocal cords

• Fibroblasts
• Mast cells
• Plasma Cells
• Elastic fibers
• Collagenous fibers

• Adipocytes
• Collagenous fibers

Reticular fibers

• Fibrocytes
• Collagenous fibers

Collagenous fibers

Elastic fibers

• Adipose CT
• Hypodermis and perirenal fat (kidneys)

• Dense irregular CT
• Reticular layer of dermis and periosteum (around bone)

Energy storage, insulation and cushioning

• Dense irregular CT
• Resists pull in multiple directions

• Dense regular CT
• Tendons and ligaments

To resist pull in ONE direction

• Elastic CT
• Aorta Wall and vocal cords

• Elastic CT
• Recoil after deformation

• Loose areolar CT
• Papillary layer of dermis and hypodermis
• Surrounding nerves and vessels

• Loose areolar
• Fxn: filling in spaces, binding and metabolic support of ET

• Reticular CT
• Lymph nodes and spleen

• Reticular CT
• Suspend cells often for filtration

• Pseudostratified ciliated columnar ET with goblet cells
• Trachea/Upper respiratory tract

• Pseudostratified ciliated columnar ET with goblet cells
• Warm, humidify and filter inhaled air

• Simple columnar ET
• Stomach (no modifications), small intestine (microvilli and goblet cells) , Jejunum, Uterine Tubes (cilia)
• "Suzy collects stickers"

Active transport and somewhat stronger than cuboidal

• Simple cuboidal ET
• Some kidney tubules and ducts
• "Suzy cuts kids"

Active transport-absorption and secretion

• Stratified squamous
• Anywhere where there is friction-lining the mouth, esophagus and the vagina
• "Suzy squats every evening"

• Straified squamous ET
• Protection against friction. Cells are free surface are dead

• Transitional ET
• Urinary bladdder and ureters
• "Tigers eat u"

• Transitional ET
• Allow distension without tearing

• Glandular ET
• There are 2 types of glands: Endocrine (secrete hormones) and Exocrine (secretes product through a duct-Ex: sweat glands, salivary glands and mammary glands)

• Specialized for secretion
• Endocrine and Exocrine glands

• Hair
• Nails
• Glands
• Sensory Receptors
• *Hypodermis is not part of this system

• Protection
• -Physical and chemical barrier
• -Immune barrier
• -Water loss
• -UV
• Temperature regulation
• Sensation
• Secretion
• Vitamin D Synthesis

• Blood vessels in dermis
• Eccrine sweat glands

• Sensory receptors
• Hair

• Sweat glands
• Phermones
• Sebum

• Made by skin to assist with calcium absorption
• Only made if skin is exposed to UV light

• 2 Major Layers:
• 1. Epidermis-ET
• 2. Dermis-CT
• Hypodermis=SubQ layer. It is deep to the skin.

• Energy storage
• Insulation
• Cushioning
• Composed of adipose CT and areolar CT

• Thin skin:
• 4 layers, majority of skin, has hair
• Thick Skin:
• Has 5 layers, on palms of hands and soles of feet, very thick epidermis

• 1. Stratum basale
• 2. Stratum spinosum
• 3. Stratum granulosm
• 4. Stratum lucidum
• 5. Stratum corneum

• 1st layer closest to the basement membrane.
• One layer of cells
• Highly mitotic keratinocytes-these get pushed up or down
• Regenerative layer

• "Spiney Layer"
• Keratinocytes have lots of desmosomes to resist stretch

• "Grainy"
• 3rd layer from BM
• Cells begin to fill with keratin

• "Light"
• Only in thick skin

• Closest layer to free surface
• Dead keratinocytes slough off
• Takes 2-4 weeks to from from basale to corneum

Learn this :)

• 1. Keratinocytes
• 2. Melanocytes
• 3. Langerhans Cells
• 4. Merkel Cell

• 90% of cells
• Protection. Waterproof barrier

• produce melanin=pigment which is passed to keratinocytes so they can protect their DNA from UV radiation
• Natural protectant
• Located in stratum basale

• Phagocytes-Immune cells
• PHagocytize bacteria and cancer cells
• Easily damaged by UV radiation
• Found in stratum spinosum

• Tactile cells
• Sense fine touch
• In stratum basale
• Stimulates merkel disc which is part of a neuron

• 1. Basal cell carcinoma
• -in stratum basale
• 2. Squamous cell carcinoma
• -in stratum spinosum
• 3. Melanoma
• -in melanocytes-spreads quickly 

• 1. Papillary layer
• 2. Reticular layer

• "nipples"
• Made of dermal papillae
• Increases surface area for metabolic support 
• Allows epidermis and dermis to lock together

• Areolar CT
• rows are called dermal ridges. these push up to form friction ridges on surface of thick skin
• Lots of capillaries (metabolic support and temperature regulation)
• Free nerve endings-sense pain, temperature. Extend into epidermis 
• Meissners corpuscle-sense touch * look like a tornado. Up by papillary layer

• Dense irregular CT
• Lots of collagen and elastic fibers
• Pacinian corpuscle 
• Ruffini corpuscle
• Lots of blood vessels
• Different glands
• Hair follicles in thin skin 

• Look like sliced onions
• Sense deep pressure and vibration 
• Can be found in hypodermis

• Sense distortion
• Look like bonsai tree

• Located in dermis but cells come from stratum basale of epidermis
• Hair
• Nails
• Glands

• Temperature regulation
• UV  protection 
• Sexual recognition
• Distribute phermones
• Filtration (nose and ear) keep stuff out
• Sensation 

• Column of dead keratinocytes covered by a cuticle
• House in follicle-one hair per follicle
• Follicle surrounds root vs shaft
• Hair papillae at base of follicle
• Capillaries and free nerve endings
• Matrix-dividing cells
• Arector pilli muscle-made of muscle tissue and unconsciously controlled

• 1. Sebaceous
• 2. Eccrine sweat glands
• 3. Apocrine sweat glands 

• Always associated with follicles
• Secrete sebum into follicle 
• Moisturize skin and hair 
• Fight against pathogens 
• Use holocrine secretion 
• This is what caused acne 
• Look like fish eggs

• Secrete sweet sweat directly to surface of skin
• Sweat will evaporate then cool you down-evaporative cooling
• Located all over thick and thin skin
• Have some antibacterial properties
• Small lumen

• Secrete stinky sweat-more lipids and proteins make it stinky
• Found only in hair follicles only in places with puberty hair
• Function is to distribute pheromones
• Not active until puberty
• Big lumen

Study of cells

Histology

Systemic Anatomy

• 1. Symmetry-bilateral
• 2. Repeating  segmentation 
• 3. Tube within a tube design
• 4. Dorsal hollow nerve cord-brain and spinal cord
• 5. Vertebral column (back bone)

Eukarya

Animalia

Chordata. Have to have a dorsal hollow nerve cord to be in this group

vertebrata (back bone)

Mamalia

primates

Hominidae

Homo sapiens

ET, CT, MT, NT

Ability to contract

• Cover surfaces
• Line cavities
• Glands

Most prominent and most diverse in fxn

Initiate electrical impulses

• Cells are tightly packed with jxns.
• Polarity-apical and basal sides
• Avascular
• Innervated
• Highly regenerative

Merocryn secretion-exocytosis

holocrine secretion

Apocrine secretion