Make Sure to Know

Light slows down and sound speeds up.

Light slows down: n_glass>n_air, which is a measure of the ratio of the velocity in air to the velocity in the medium.

Sound speeds up: Speed of sound is much greater in solids than in air, because solids have stiff rigid bonds

that give rise to a speed more than 10x greater than air.

6.022x10²³

Attractive molecular forces between surfaces in contact

Newton's 3rd Law; you can assume that the forces of collision are equal and opposite.

The relative velocities (motion) of the source and the detector

df/f=-v/c for a given relative velocity v between source & detector.

So, change in frequency is inversely proportional to speed of wave in the medium in which it propagates, c.

Since the velocity of sound is much smaller than velocity of electromagnetic radiation, for the same relative velocity, the freq and wavelength shifts are much greater for sound than for radio waves. esp since c is the same for both.

0 Hz (bc there's no relative motion bt jets, so no freq shift)

Energy.

Mechanical waves, such as sound and water waves, are a local oscillation of material. Only the energy propagates, but the oscillating material does not move far from its initial equilibrium position.

The outer coverings of body: Epidermis, nails, tooth enamel, cells of nervous system & sense organs.

The mesoderm is the stuff that lies between the inner and outer covering of the body: the muscle, the bone, and the rest of the internal organs that the endoderm doesn't cover.

The digestive tract; respiratory tract; parts of the liver, pancreas, and bladder.

tRNA - when the nucleotide chain loops back upon itself.

• 1. Hormones
• 2. Enzymes
• 3. Structural proteins
• 4. Transport proteins
• 5. Anti-bodies

Organisms can mate with each other under natural conditions to produce viable, fertile offspring

NEVER - somatic cells are ALWAYS diploid.

Sympathetic - fight or flight

Parasympathetic - rest or digest

• (1) Pupils dilate
• (2) Blood is directed away from digestive system to skin & muscles
• (3) Heart beats faster and more forcefully
• (4) Bronchi of lungs relax to let in more air

Gene frequencies will not change over time and the frequencies in the next generation will be p2 for the AA genotype, 2pq for the Aa genotype and q2 for the aa genotype.

• p=dominant
• q=recessive

• 1. Prophase - nuclear membrane disintegrates, nucleolus disappears,  chromosomes condense/appear, mitotic spindles (microtubules) form b/t  poles; kinetochores mature and attach to spindles.
• 2. Metaphase - chromosomes attach to mitotic spindles at kinetochores and align along metaphase plate at equator
• 3. Anaphase - kinetochore microtubules shorten, separating chromosomes to opposite poles, polar microtubules/cell elongate
• 4.Telophase - chromosomes reach poles of cell. Polar microtubules
• continue elongate. Nuclear membranes form, nucleoli reappear and
• chromosomes decondense.
• 5. Cytokinesis - cleave furrow forms and cell divides.

Synapsis - after DNA replication and formation of sister chromatids --> forming of homologous chromosomes

Homologous recombination - genetic exchange between homologous chromosomes ("crossing over")

Reduction division - at the end of meiosis, each cell contains only half of original complement of chromosomes.

Sister chromatids in meiosis II aren't always identical. After meiosis II, haploid gametes formed.

Meiosis - 4 haploid gametes

Mitosis - 2 diploid cells

• Al = 3+
• Zn = 2+
• Cd = 2+
• Ag = 1+

Electrons always flow from anode to cathode.

only once! then followed by two successive divisions

Venous side of pulmonary capillaries (because PO2 in blood = PO2 in alveoli; same with CO2)

AND

Venous side of tissue capillaries (b/c PO2 in tissue capillaries = PO2 in blood; same with CO2)

(1) Spermatogonia (2n) divides by mitosis into a spermatogonium & one primary spermatocyte.

(2) Primary spermatocyte divides by meiosis to form secondary spermatocytes

(3) secondary spermatocytes divide by meiosis again to form spermatids (n)

(4) Spermatids differentiate into sperm cells.

In Seminiferous tubules

Strong acids > C.A. > Phenols > Alcohols/Water > alpha Hs on carbonyls > sp hybridized CH bonds > sp2 > sp3 hybridized CH bonds.

(1) HX (Cl, Br, I): Racemic mix OR C+ rearrangement

(2) H2SO4, H2O: C+ R

(3) Oxymercuration, Hydroboration (1. Hg(OAc)2 + H2O/THF; 2. NABH/OH-) NO C+ rearrangement

(1) Hydroboration (1. BH3 or B2H6; 2. H2O2/-OH) anti-mark alcohol; syn addition!!

(2) HBR addition with peroxides: Halogenated anti-mark alkanes - works only for HBr

Mark: halogenation (racemic/C+), acid-catalyzed hydration (C+), and oxymercuration hydroboration (No C+).

Anti-Mark: Hydroboration (anti-mark ROH; syn); HBr addition with peroxides (works only for HBr)

• Mark: H adds to least substituted C
• Anti-Mark: H adds to most substituted C

(1) H2 + metal --> reduces all pi bonds to alkanes

(2) Lindlar catalyst (H2, CaCO3 or BaSO4, Pd) --> alkyne to syn alkene

(3) Na, NH3 (l) --> alkyne to anti (trans) alkene

• 1. 4n + 2 pi electrons
• 2. overlapping p orbitals
• 3. flat & planar
• 4. cyclic

Lymph vessels & lymph nodes

Bone marrow - produces immune cells like lymphocytes, monocytes, leukocytes, B cells and T cells.

Thymus - secretes thymosin which stimulates pre-T cells to mature

Spleen - storage area for blood; filters blood/lymph

• 1. Eyes - produce antibacterial tears lysozyme
• 2. Skin - important barrier; also regulates body temp and excretes excess water and salt.
• 3. Stomach - HCl kills bacteria
• 4. Mucus & Cilia push bad stuff out by coughing

• 1. Phagocytes (WBC) like neutrophils and macrophages
• 2. Interferons - stimulate protein production that interferes with viral replication.
• 3. Inflammatory response (injured cells release histamine blood vessels dilate, increased blood flow to site of damage). 
• Fever too. 

1. Cytotoxic T cells - kill cells that are infected by a pathogen that the T cell recognizes.

2. Helper - coordinate immune response of other cells against specific antigens through secretion of signaling molecules called lymphokines (interleukins)

3. Suppresor - regulate other T & B cells to decerase activity. 

B cells respond to antigens (things that immune system recognizes as foreign) by making antibodies ("immunoglobins") that bind to antigens. 

Antibodies mark the stuff that's supposed to be eaten by macrophages. 

T cells have T cell receptors on membranes of T cells.

T cells only recognize antigens that are on surface of other cells

To stimulate T cell, antigen must be presented to cell as part of a bunch of proteins called MHC (Major histocompatibility complex)

• MHC Class I - present on surface of all cells
• MHC Class II - present only on immune cells (macrophages, B cells & T cells)

1. Macrophages phagocytize a pathogen and bacterial proteins are broken down and displayed on surface of macrophage via MHC Class II. 

2. Helper T cells recognize MHC-antigen complex on surface of macrophage and secrete interleukins


3. Interleukins activate cytotoxic T cells to kill infected cells & stimulate B cells to secete antibodies. 

Secreted from Helper T cells after HT cells have recognized MHC-Antigen complex on surface of macrophage.

Purpose: (1) activate cytotoxic T cells to kill infected cells & (2) stimulate B cells to secrete antibodies. 

Primary immune response (first exposure to antigen)

Secondary immune response (exposed again to same antigen --> responds more quickly & effectively)

Immunological memory

Memory cells - produced during the primary immune response. Memory cells survive for long periods and quickly proliferate if exposed to antigen that caused their creation.

During primary immune response

mother to fetus

1. Cytotoxic T cells

2. Helper T Cells

3. B cells

4. Supressor T cells

5. B cells

6. Antibodies mark antigens so macrophages can recognize them and eat them.

Show areas of cartilage in the long bones (bc embryonic skeletal system is mostly cartilage). 

ALSO - b.c epiphyseal plate is composed of cartilage and is site of longitudinal bone growth. 

they don't hehe tricked

I only. 

Macrophages definitely have more lysosomes than activated B cells. 

Activated B cells do have nuclei too.

TORQUE, force doesn't have to be zero, because it can move back and forth, side to side, without anything spilling over.

The circular nodes and diameter nodes. It's at the nodes where no vibration occurs, so that's where sand accumulates. At the antinodes.

The pitch will remain unchanged because the frequency of vibration is not changed.

Frequency of vibration of membrane determines of frequency of pressure waves in air, determining the pitch of the sound detected.

Pressure & air density (low pressure & low air density = faster sound). But these factors DO NOT affect frequency of sound (pitch).

Freq beats = Freq1-Freq2

If there's a high frequency of beats, that means that there is a large difference between the relative frequencies of the two sounds.

sp³d⁵

An impure solution would have lower vapor pressure and higher BP.

• For zero lone pairs:
• 2 - linear
• 3 - trigonal planar
• 4 - tetrahedral
• 5 - trigonal bipyrimidal
•  6 - octahedral

For one lone pair: 

2 - bent; 3 - trigonal pyramid; 4 - see saw; 5 - square pyramid

2 - bent; 3 - Tshaped; 4 - Square planar

It means there's air resistance to factor in; so mass IS a factor.

45 degrees

The endpoint of a titration is the pH at which the indicator remains permanently at its end color.

1. Gases are made of particles whose volumes are negligible compared to the container volume.

2. Gas particles have no intermolecular forces b/t each other 

3. Gas particles are in continuous, random motion undergoing collisions with other particles & container walls

4. Collisions are ELASTIC, no overall gain or loss of energy

5. The absolute KE of an individual gas particle is proportional to the average temp of the gas and is the same for all gases at a given temp. 

wavelength = 4L/n; n = 1,2,3 etc. 

Normally, for two open sides it would be wavelength = 2L/n; n = any integer

Burst of ATP production

B/c at pH = 8 until saturation, this means that the mitochondria will be slightly basic throughout - decrease in H+ concentration. When mitochondria are transferred to an acidic solution, the medium outside the inner membrane will be acidic while the matrix will still be basic - perfect conditions for proton gradient to produce ATP. 

ADP and Pi

Which molecule is most reactive with water? Look for acyl halides, anhydrides, etc. 

• 1. The population must be very large in size.
• 2. Random mating
• 3. It must be isolated from other populations. (no gene flow)
• 4. No mutations
• 5. No natural selection.

1/6 = 0.167; 1/9 = 0.111

• 1/7 = 0.143
• 1/11 = 0.0909

• 1/8 = 0.125
• 1/16 = 0.0625