B2 lab t1

death of anything that is not "fit"

ability to reproduce

belief that things appeared and never changed

animals don't change, but sometimes they all die (fossil record and oil and coal deposits

Naturalist, Father of natural selection (with Wallace). in 1835 went to Galapagos and saw the finches.

~1800, Mathematician, "Essay on principle of population"--populations increase exponentially until "limiting factors" interfere

1830. Books: Principles of geology. Suggested that the earth was older than 6000 years (25 million).

~1840s. Presented "Natural Selection, overpopulation and variation" before Darwin, but had previously backed "transmutation of species" (alchemy).

Nature chooses one over another

Man chooses one over another: dogs, apples, corn

• Homologous structures
• analogous structures
• convergent evolution

same origin, different use: human hands vs. bat wings

same use, different origin: lungs vs. gills, avian wings vs. insect wings

2 species coming up with the same answer to a problem (analogous structures). Flight of a bird vs. an insect. The bones of almost all animals seem to be the same. Pelvis, skull, eyes, limbs, etc.

The longer it has been since 2 species' genetic divergence, the more different their amino acid recipes (cytochrome C) are.

• How genetics can predict exactly when change is occurring. Population.
• p + q = 1
• p² + 2pq + q² = 1 (what you see)

dominant allele

recessive allele

• no mutation
• no natural selection
• large population
• no artificial selection (random mating)
• no migration

(hardy-weinberg) Even bell-shape. 25 + 50 + 25 = 1

(hardy-weinberg) favors one side (butterflies at industrial revolution) 100 + 0 + 0 = 1

(hardy-weinberg) heterozygote advantage (sickle cell vs. malaria) 0 + 100 + 0 = 1

medicine

(hardy-weinberg) anti-heterozygote. 50 + 0 + 50 = 1. Usually precedes an evolutionary shift.

no nucleus. Consist of Archaebacteria and eubacteria

true nucleus

Basis of exobiology. Extremeophiles. No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, no peptidoglycan in cell walls, some have histones, otherwise closed-circle DNA

love extreme conditions

extremeophiles that love acid (stomach/intestines)

extremeophiles that love dramatic temperatures (lava flows, sulfer vents, ice cores)

extremeophiles that love salt (Dead sea)

consist of autotrophs (chemo and photo) and heterotrophs (chemo and photo)

• shape (motility)--coccus (o), bacillus(0), spirilum (spirally)
• arrangement--chain (strepto o and 0), bunch/clump (staphylo o-only), mono, diplo
• motility-- (not all) trichus (hair). mono, amphi, Iopho (tuft), Peri (all around)

genus and species (taxonomy--binomial nomenclature)

staphylococcus gram positive

amphitrichus streptobacillus, gram negative

flagella is part of the cell, trichus is a hair with a hook on the end.

• Gram positive: M&M, stains purple. Peptidoglycan wall on the outside. Structurally sound but rigid. Uses exotoxins.
• Gram negative: raisenette, stains pink (alcohol washes away gooey wall). liposaccharide wall outside peptidoglycan wall. Flexible that makes reproduction and transmission in and out easy, but not safe. Endotoxins (poison dart tree frog). Safety by word-of-mouth

M&M, stains purple. Peptidoglycan wall on the outside. Structurally sound but rigid. Uses exotoxins.

raisenette, stains pink (alcohol washes away gooey wall). liposaccharide wall outside peptidoglycan wall. Flexible that makes reproduction and transmission in and out easy, but not safe. Endotoxins (poison dart tree frog). Safety by word-of-mouth

• heat fixing (put water on then heat till evaporates)
• crystal violet (primary stain)
• wash with water
• Iodine (Mordant--color-booster)
• WASH WITH ALCOHOL (key step--decolorizes gram negative by washing away lipid wall)
• safranin (pink)
• wash with water

binary fission (asexual). Offspring are genetically identical unless there is a mutation.

when 2 bacteria blend genetic information. Transformation, transduction, conjugation

Mouse thing. Blend heat-killed lethal bits with live harmless and harmless can become lethal.

bacteriophage injects genetic material (virus). Makes more, some "oops" and have cell material which gets injected into other cells.

2 bacteria. 1 has an F+ plasmid. F+ means can create a pilis--bridge to other cell to copy and spread plasmid. Both are F+. NOT SEXUAL (2 make 2, not 2 make 3)

process of plants where part of their life they are diploid (sporophyte) and part they are haploid (gametophytes).

haploid stage of plants where they produce sex cells

have sporangia to produce mother spores (2n)

sex organs--archegonium (female) and antheridium (male)

archegonium

antheridium

seedless non vascular plants. Simplest. Moss, liverwort. Tiny plants who rely on rain for reproduction. Close to the ground to gather water--outward not upward. New organism grows out of the female (up in moss, down into cup in liverwort), spores fly out and become adult.

liverwort (bryophyta) body. Close to the ground.

root-like hairs that anchor bryophyta (liverwort) to the ground

waxy covering that ensures plants do not dry out

seedless vascular. Pterophyta, Lycophyta

Wing plant. Seedless vascular (only xylem) fern. First tall plant, reproduction issues. Main form is a sporophyte. Spores grow into prothallus (gametophyte) anchored by rhizoids with anther and archae

• xylem--water only (sink to top)
• phloem--nutrients (source to sink)

heterospory fern (seedless vascular). Some plants are male, some female. 2 types of mother spores: microspore (male) and megaspore (female). Lost advantage in asteroid crash.

survivors of nuclear winter. Seeded plants in 2 groups: gymnosperms (naked seed) and angiosperms (covered seed)

• Pinidae/Coniferaphyta: pine tree (woody, evergreen, monoecious). Hardwood center doesn't have to be fed. Strong, contant photosynthesis, double reproductive whammy (2 types of cones, aerodynamic seed)
• cycads: flower-like arrangements of cones
• gingkos: durable in polution. Females stink
• gnetophyta: organized vascular tissue. Chose whether to move nutrients or salts.

rigid tree(hardwood)or bendy bush (softwood)

classification of post nuclear winter plants

• mono--1 plant, 2 sexes
• di--2 plants, 2 sexes

green leaves around a flower (fundraisers--extra photosynthesis)

male parts. Consist of anther and filament (bud on top of stick). Anther makes pollen sac with 2 tail-less sperm inside, developed from microspores.

advertising for pollen-movers

female parts. Consist of Stigma (top, sticky with fructose to attach pollen sac), style (neck), ovary (bulb)

un-split egg (2 nuclei--polar nuclei) in ovary of flower. Fertilized by copy of second sperm as food for embryo.

• covered seed--fruits and flowers.
• Liliopsida (monocots) (grass)
• magnoliopsida (dicots) (maple tree)

embryonic leaves. Monocot (liliopsida) has one, dicot (magnoliopsida) has two

dicot (maple tree). Complex leaves, branching vascular tissue, stem vascular tissue arranged in a ring (tree growth rings), root vascular tissue arranged in an X

monocot (grasses). Long leaves with straight vascular tissue, no organization of vascular tissue in stems (random, flexible/pliable) and ring of vascular tissue in root

flowers, to create the endosperm and embryo