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evolution
death of anything that is not "fit"
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creationism
belief that things appeared and never changed
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catastrophism
animals don't change, but sometimes they all die (fossil record and oil and coal deposits
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Charles Darwin
Naturalist, Father of natural selection (with Wallace). in 1835 went to Galapagos and saw the finches.
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Thomas Malthus
~1800, Mathematician, "Essay on principle of population"--populations increase exponentially until "limiting factors" interfere
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Charles Lyell
1830. Books: Principles of geology. Suggested that the earth was older than 6000 years (25 million).
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Alfred Wallace
~1840s. Presented "Natural Selection, overpopulation and variation" before Darwin, but had previously backed "transmutation of species" (alchemy).
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Natural Selection
Nature chooses one over another
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Artificial selection
Man chooses one over another: dogs, apples, corn
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Supports for Natural Selection
- Homologous structures
- analogous structures
- convergent evolution
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homologous structures
same origin, different use: human hands vs. bat wings
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analogous structures
same use, different origin: lungs vs. gills, avian wings vs. insect wings
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Convergent evolution
2 species coming up with the same answer to a problem (analogous structures). Flight of a bird vs. an insect. The bones of almost all animals seem to be the same. Pelvis, skull, eyes, limbs, etc.
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molecular clock
The longer it has been since 2 species' genetic divergence, the more different their amino acid recipes (cytochrome C) are.
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Hardy-Weinberg equation
- How genetics can predict exactly when change is occurring. Population.
- p + q = 1
- p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 (what you see)
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rules for hardy-weinberg
- no mutation
- no natural selection
- large population
- no artificial selection (random mating)
- no migration
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standard curve
(hardy-weinberg) Even bell-shape. 25 + 50 + 25 = 1
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selective curve
(hardy-weinberg) favors one side (butterflies at industrial revolution) 100 + 0 + 0 = 1
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stabilizing curve
(hardy-weinberg) heterozygote advantage (sickle cell vs. malaria) 0 + 100 + 0 = 1
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enemy of natural selection
medicine
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disruptive curve
(hardy-weinberg) anti-heterozygote. 50 + 0 + 50 = 1. Usually precedes an evolutionary shift.
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Prokaryotes
no nucleus. Consist of Archaebacteria and eubacteria
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Archaebacteria
Basis of exobiology. Extremeophiles. No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, no peptidoglycan in cell walls, some have histones, otherwise closed-circle DNA
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Extremeophiles
love extreme conditions
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acidophiles
extremeophiles that love acid (stomach/intestines)
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thermophiles
extremeophiles that love dramatic temperatures (lava flows, sulfer vents, ice cores)
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halophiles
extremeophiles that love salt (Dead sea)
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Eubacteria
consist of autotrophs (chemo and photo) and heterotrophs (chemo and photo)
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Chemoheterotroph classification
- shape (motility)--coccus (o), bacillus(0), spirilum (spirally)
- arrangement--chain (strepto o and 0), bunch/clump (staphylo o-only), mono, diplo
- motility-- (not all) trichus (hair). mono, amphi, Iopho (tuft), Peri (all around)
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Linnaeus
genus and species (taxonomy--binomial nomenclature)
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purple clump of circles
staphylococcus gram positive
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pink chain of ovals with hair on each side
amphitrichus streptobacillus, gram negative
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difference between flagella and trichus
flagella is part of the cell, trichus is a hair with a hook on the end.
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Cell wall types
- Gram positive: M&M, stains purple. Peptidoglycan wall on the outside. Structurally sound but rigid. Uses exotoxins.
- Gram negative: raisenette, stains pink (alcohol washes away gooey wall). liposaccharide wall outside peptidoglycan wall. Flexible that makes reproduction and transmission in and out easy, but not safe. Endotoxins (poison dart tree frog). Safety by word-of-mouth
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Gram positive
M&M, stains purple. Peptidoglycan wall on the outside. Structurally sound but rigid. Uses exotoxins.
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Gram negative
raisenette, stains pink (alcohol washes away gooey wall). liposaccharide wall outside peptidoglycan wall. Flexible that makes reproduction and transmission in and out easy, but not safe. Endotoxins (poison dart tree frog). Safety by word-of-mouth
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Gram staining process
- heat fixing (put water on then heat till evaporates)
- crystal violet (primary stain)
- wash with water
- Iodine (Mordant--color-booster)
- WASH WITH ALCOHOL (key step--decolorizes gram negative by washing away lipid wall)
- safranin (pink)
- wash with water
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Prokaryote reproduction
binary fission (asexual). Offspring are genetically identical unless there is a mutation.
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recombinance
when 2 bacteria blend genetic information. Transformation, transduction, conjugation
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Transformation
Mouse thing. Blend heat-killed lethal bits with live harmless and harmless can become lethal.
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transduction
bacteriophage injects genetic material (virus). Makes more, some "oops" and have cell material which gets injected into other cells.
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conjugation
2 bacteria. 1 has an F+ plasmid. F+ means can create a pilis--bridge to other cell to copy and spread plasmid. Both are F+. NOT SEXUAL (2 make 2, not 2 make 3)
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Alternation of Generations
process of plants where part of their life they are diploid (sporophyte) and part they are haploid (gametophytes).
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gametophyte
haploid stage of plants where they produce sex cells
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sporophyte
have sporangia to produce mother spores (2n)
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gametangia
sex organs--archegonium (female) and antheridium (male)
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female plant sex organ
archegonium
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male plant sex organ
antheridium
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Bryophyta
seedless non vascular plants. Simplest. Moss, liverwort. Tiny plants who rely on rain for reproduction. Close to the ground to gather water--outward not upward. New organism grows out of the female (up in moss, down into cup in liverwort), spores fly out and become adult.
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Thallus
liverwort (bryophyta) body. Close to the ground.
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rhizoid
root-like hairs that anchor bryophyta (liverwort) to the ground
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cuticle
waxy covering that ensures plants do not dry out
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Ferns
seedless vascular. Pterophyta, Lycophyta
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Pterophyta
Wing plant. Seedless vascular (only xylem) fern. First tall plant, reproduction issues. Main form is a sporophyte. Spores grow into prothallus (gametophyte) anchored by rhizoids with anther and archae
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types of vascular tissue in plants
- xylem--water only (sink to top)
- phloem--nutrients (source to sink)
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Lycophyta
heterospory fern (seedless vascular). Some plants are male, some female. 2 types of mother spores: microspore (male) and megaspore (female). Lost advantage in asteroid crash.
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Spermatophytes
survivors of nuclear winter. Seeded plants in 2 groups: gymnosperms (naked seed) and angiosperms (covered seed)
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Gymnosperms
- Pinidae/Coniferaphyta: pine tree (woody, evergreen, monoecious). Hardwood center doesn't have to be fed. Strong, contant photosynthesis, double reproductive whammy (2 types of cones, aerodynamic seed)
- cycads: flower-like arrangements of cones
- gingkos: durable in polution. Females stink
- gnetophyta: organized vascular tissue. Chose whether to move nutrients or salts.
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woody or herbacious
rigid tree(hardwood)or bendy bush (softwood)
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evergreen or decidiuous
classification of post nuclear winter plants
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monoecious or dioecious
- mono--1 plant, 2 sexes
- di--2 plants, 2 sexes
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sepals
green leaves around a flower (fundraisers--extra photosynthesis)
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stamen
male parts. Consist of anther and filament (bud on top of stick). Anther makes pollen sac with 2 tail-less sperm inside, developed from microspores.
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petals
advertising for pollen-movers
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Carpel
female parts. Consist of Stigma (top, sticky with fructose to attach pollen sac), style (neck), ovary (bulb)
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endosperm
un-split egg (2 nuclei--polar nuclei) in ovary of flower. Fertilized by copy of second sperm as food for embryo.
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angiosperm
- covered seed--fruits and flowers.
- Liliopsida (monocots) (grass)
- magnoliopsida (dicots) (maple tree)
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cotyledon
embryonic leaves. Monocot (liliopsida) has one, dicot (magnoliopsida) has two
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magnoliopsida
dicot (maple tree). Complex leaves, branching vascular tissue, stem vascular tissue arranged in a ring (tree growth rings), root vascular tissue arranged in an X
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liliopsida
monocot (grasses). Long leaves with straight vascular tissue, no organization of vascular tissue in stems (random, flexible/pliable) and ring of vascular tissue in root
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double fertilization
flowers, to create the endosperm and embryo
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