Cumulative Review 1.txt

Independent. There is none.

The coefficient of kinetic friction is always lower than that of static friction. Therefore there is a net accelerating force on the block once it starts to slide making speed increase linearly with time.

N₂ has a lower molecular weight than does O_2.

Increases

Sound waves travel more slowly.

Getting closer.

Liquid density and depth

The pH of the salt solution formed.

The mass of an acid that yields one mole of hydrogen ions.

or

The mass of a base that reacts with one mole of hydrogen ions.

The mole fraction is the number of moles of chemical in question divided by the total number of moles for all other species in solution.

mf of A =

Divide the total pressure by number of molecules (including coefficients).

CH₄ + 2O₂ CO₂ + 2H₂O

(maybe products only?)

Figure out number of moles. Number of moles equals subscript unless it can be reduced. (e.g. 2:4:2 = 1:2:1)

Open pipe wavelength is 2 times the length of the pipe.

Pipe diameter doesn't matter.

The number of electrons ejected increases.

Electron energy is based on the energy of the photon.

The square of the current (I) times the resistance (R).

Increases the speed of the ejected electron.

Melting

Produces an image behind its plane at a distance equal to the distance of the object being reflected.

H₃O⁺

Parasympathetic motor fibers

• Amine
• 
• Amide
• 

Stimulates gluconeogenisis and release of glucose into the blood.

Slightly lowers and broadens the temperature range of melting.

They are connected in such a way that contents may move freely between them.

Metabolically inactive

Haploid

• T cells
• B cells
• Other leukocytes

Saponification is hydrolysis of an ester.

Fission

Hypothalamus

Pituitary

Ovary

Hair, nails, skin, and oil and sweat glands.

Thermoregulation, protection, environmental sensory input, excretion, innate immunity, blood reservoir, vitamin D synthesis.

Made of avascular, dead, keratinized cells.

Contains blood vessels, hair follicles, sebaceous glands (oil), sudoriferous glands (sweat), and nerve endings. The dermis is a connective tissue.

Body movement, support and stabilization, generation of heat, and maintenance of homeostasis.

Voluntary, striated, and multinucleated.

The neuromuscular junction between a skeletal muscle and a motor nerve can ONLY USE ACETYLCHOLINE (ACh) AS THE NEUROTRANSMITTER. The action potential spreads along the sarcolemma and down specialized T-tubules that dive deep into the muscle cell, causing the release of Ca²⁺.

• -The default low-energy position for myosin heads is bent. ATP is used to force, or "cock", these myosin heads into a high-energy, straight position.
• -After the "power stroke", ATP binds to the mysoin head again, releasing it from the actin filament.

High

Low

Myosin heads cannot detach from actin and the muscle will remain in a contracted position. (Rigor mortis)

We do not get rigor, but the inability to contract (a.k.a. "flaccidity")

• 1) Number of motor units being used
• 2) Size of the motor units being used
• 3) Frequency of action potentials (i.e. stimulation)

• Skeletal muscles store large amounts of glycogen; they also require a lot of oxygen and thus have their own oxygen storage molecule, myoglobin, which is capable of holding one O₂ molecule.
• Also mature (differentiated) skeletal muscles are frozen in G_o phase and do not divide (similar to neurons)

• Involuntary, striated, one nucleus.
• Unlike skeletal muscles, cardiac cells continue dividing after differentiation.

Does contain sarcomeres and uses the same sliding filament mechanism as skeletal muscle.

Involuntary, non-striated, one nucleus.

Smooth muscle is NOT arranged in sarcomeres. Therefore it does not contain troponin. Uses a calcium cascade mechanism instead.

Support, protection, movement, mineral storage (calcium and phosphate), energy storage (as fat in the marrow), and blood cell formation.

Mature bone cells surrounded by a mineral matrix.

Bone cells that break down and resorb bone matrix, releasing the component minerals (Ca²⁺ and P) back into the blood.

Immature bone cells that secrete collagen, organic compounds, and minerals forming a bone matrix around themselves. Once they are completely enclosed by matrix, they differentiate into osteocytes.

Two epiphyses (bulbous ends) cushioned by cartilage; the ends are filled with spongy bone and the shaft in between is made of compact bone; the center is a hollow cavity filled with yellow bone marrow.

A compound of calcium, phosphate, and hydroxide. It is the mineral matrix responsible for a bone's strength and is the form in which most all of the body's calcium is stored.

• A connective tissue made of collagen.
• No perfusion or innervation
• Found in appendages such as the nose and ears, at the ends of the long bones, between vertebrae, at the rib-sternum (sternocostal) joints, etc.

• 1) Fibrous (skull bones)
• 2) Cartilaginous (ribs and sternum)
• 3) Synovial (knee, elbow, etc.)

Spermatozoa are produced by the testicles in the seminiferous tubules and stored and nurtured in the epididymis. They are a SINGLE, HAPLOID cell consisting of a head (cell body) and tail (flagellum). They contain lots of mitochondria.

Sperm leave the epididymis via the vas deferens. The vas deferens arches back up into the pelvis and then back towards the penis. Along this path seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral gland (a.k.a. Cowper's gland) all secrete various lubricants and nutrients into the ejaculate.

Anterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release stress hormones called "glucocorticoids".

Anterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Surge in LH causes ovulation; stimulates the secretion of the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone.

Anterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates growth of the follicle during menstrual cycle and production of sperm.

Anterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates release of T3/T4 from the thyroid.

Anterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates growth throughout the body.

Anterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates milk production in the breasts.

Posterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Causes the collecting duct of the kidney to become highly permeable to water, concentrating the urine.

Posterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates contractions during childbirth and milk secretion during nursing.

Parathyroid

Peptide and water-soluble

Increases blood calcium by stimulating proliferation of osteoclasts, uptake of Ca²⁺ in the gut, and reabsorption of Ca²⁺ in the kidney.

Pancreas

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates uptake and storage of glucose from the blood.

Pancreas

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates gluconeogenisis and release of glucose into the blood.

Thyroid

Peptide and water-soluble

Decreases blood calcium by inhibiting osteoclasts.

Egg/placenta

Peptide and water-soluble

Prevents degeneration of the corpeus luteum, maintaining pregnancy.

Adrenal cortex

Steroid and lipid-soluble

Increases Na⁺ reabsorption and K⁺ secretion at the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct; net increase in salts in the plasma, increasing osmotic potential and subsequently blood pressure.

Adrenal cortex

Steroid and lipid-soluble

A stress hormone; increases gluconeogenesis in the liver and thus blood glucose levels; stimulates fat breakdown.

Gonads/testes

Steroid and lipid-soluble

Stimulates development of secondary sex characteristics and closing of epiphyseal plates.

Gonads/ovaries

Steroid and lipid-soluble

Stimulates female sex organs; causes LH surge in menstruation.

Gonads/ovaries

Steroid and lipid-soluble

Stimulates growth and maintenance of uterus during pregnancy.

Thyroid

Tyrosine derivative and lipid-soluble

Increases basal metabolic rate, affecting metabolism.

Adrenal medulla

Tyrosine derivative and water-soluble

Cause responses almost identical to a sympathetic nervous system response (fight or flight).

ACTH, LH, FSH, TSH, hGH, Prolactin, ADH, Oxytocin, Parathyroid Hormone, Insulin, Glucagon, Calcitonin, hCG

Aldosterone, Cortisol, Testosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone

Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, T3, T4

Endoplasmic reticulum

Mitochondria

• -Respiratory System (lungs)
• -Nervous System (ependymal cells)
• -Reproductive System (fallopian tubes)

Nucleus. DNA cannot leave and is only found here. There is however a small amount found in the mitochondria.

Site of rRNA transcription and ribosome assembly.

Covered with ribosomes; all proteins not bound for the cytosol are made here.

Lipid synthesis and modification. NOT LIPID METABOLISM.

Cellular "post office;" organize, package, modify, excrete, etc.

Have their own DNA with variations to the nuclear genetic code passed through the maternal line only.

Place of lipid metabolism.

Theory suggests they evolved from aerobic prokaryotes in symbiosis with a eukaryotic cell.

• pH of 5
• Digests cell parts
• Fuses with phagocytotic vesicles
• Participates in cell death (apoptosis)
• Forms by budding off from the Golgi

• Self-replicates
• Detoxifies chemicals
• Participates in lipid metabolism

A protein that is the main constituent of microtubules.

Microscopic network of filaments that give shape to cells.

Segregates chromosomes during cell division.

Filaments in muscle that provide movement.

Whipping motion; microtubules made of tubulin.

Spinning/rotating motion; simple helices made of flagellin.

Water-proof barriers

Tunnels allowing exchange

Strongest cellular junction but are not watertight barriers.

• Diffusion
• Facilitated Diffusion
• Active Transport
• Secondary Active Transport

Major component of all cell membranes that form lipid bilayers. Most phospholipids contain a diglyceride.

A protein molecule or protein assembly permanently attached in a biological membrane.

Transport substances such as molecules and ions across the membrane, within the cell, or can be involved in vesicular transport.

Organic chemical substance classified as a waxy steroid of fat. Essential structural component of mammalian cell membranes and is required to establish proper membrane permeability and fluidity.

Signal-receiving molecules embedded in the cell wall.

The release of cellular substances contained in cell vesicles by fusion of the vesicular membrane with the plasma membrane and release of the contents to the exterior of the cell.

Incorporation of substances into a cell by phagocytosis or pinocytosis.

Cell eating

Cell drinking

S_rxn = S(products) - S(reactants)

• Increase in entropy or disorder = +∆S
• Decrease in entropy or increase in order = –∆S

• 1. Depends on number of particles not mass.
• 2. Raises bp and lowers fp (antifreeze)

Volatile components are released.

Energy dissipated by frictional force is equal to the force they are exerting times the distance over which they exert that force.

Coherent light are light waves that are "in phase" with one another.

Light waves are widely divergent or scattered.

The C-1 carbon

Image is in front of the retina.

Divergent lens for correction.

1700 sharp, deep

3300 broad, separate from CH

2800 sharp, deep

3000 broad, overlaps CH

3300 broad, shallow

3300 broad, deep

2250 sharp, deep

SG = D_substance/D_H2O

D = density

• Domain
• Kingdom
• Phylum
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
• Species

• Stain purple (high amount of peptidoglycan retains dye)
• Very thick cell walls
• Form endospores
• Single cell membrane.

• Stain pink (bc the relatively low amount of peptidoglycan)
• Relatively thin cell wall
• Do NOT form endospores
• Contain two cell membranes (inside and outside of the cell wall)

Transformation: take up DNA from surroundings.

Transduction: genes transfered via virus

Conjugation: sex pilus (other bacteria)

Depends on how many are actually bonded to the atom in question.

Just over 7 in a healthy individual.

Goes up with excess O₂ and down with excess CO₂.

• (VC) Vena cavae
• (RA) Right atrium
• (RV) Right ventricle
• (PA) Pulmonary artery
• Lungs
• (PV) Pulmonary vein
• (LA) Left atrium
• (LV) Left ventricle
• (A) Aorta
• Body organs
• Right atrium again

Left ventricular wall is thicker and generates higher pressure upon contraction.

Digestive

Stores bile produced by the liver that digests hydrophobic fats (e.g. triglycerides)

Tissue culture.

Intact cells with all intracellular mechanisms still functioning are needed.

X = 1/2at²

v = √(2gh)

F = Gmm/r²

F = ma

PV = nRT

KE = 1/2mv²

PE = mgh

PE = 1/2kx²

PE = 1/2cv²

• c - capacitance
• v - voltage

F_machine = mg(h/d)

• h - vertical height
• d - length of ramp (hypotenuse)

F_machine = mg(L₁/L₂)

L₁ and L₂ refer to the lever arms for the mass and the applied force, respectively. (What does this sentence mean?)

F_machine = mg/(# of vertical ropes directly lifting the mass)

• F_machine = mg(h₁h₂)
• F_machine = mg(A₁A₂)

• Where h₁ and h₂ refer to the distance traveled by the large plunger and the small plunger, respectively.
• Where A₁ and A₂ refer to the cross-sectional areas of the small plunger and large plunger, respectively.

• P = ∆E/t
• P = W/t
• P = Fdcos/t
• P_{instantaneous} = Fvcos

Units - Watts (J/s)

• frequency - occurences per (time)
• wavelength - crest to crest or trough to trough

C = 2πr

a = gsin

v_final = v_initial(m_initial/m_final)

On a plane:

F_friction = µmg

On a slope:

F_friction = µmgcos

F_B = _fluidv_objectg

Wavelength = speed (c for light) / frequency of beat

A tuft of capillaries situated within a Bowman's capsule at the end of the renal tubule in the kidney that filters waste products from the blood and initiates urine formation.

The structure surrounding the glomerulus.

• Is responsible for the reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, various ions, and water.
• Sodium is actively transported, chloride follows passively by electrical attraction, and water follows the salt out of the proximal tubule.

Is permeable to water.

• Na⁺ is actively transported out and Cl^– follows due to electrical attraction.
• Impermeable to water.

Located next to each glomerulus, it is involved in the secretion of renin and EPO in response to blood pressure changes.

Reabsorbs Na⁺ through coupled secretion of H⁺ or K⁺. Requires the presence of aldosterone. Plays an important role in acid-base balance.

As the collecting ducts pass through the hypertonic renal medulla, water leaves by osmosis and is carried away in surrounding capillaries.

The permeability of the collecting ducts to water is stimulated by antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

Urine is collected and moved into the renal pelvis and ureters.

The funnel-shaped cavity of the kidney into which urine is discharged before passing into the ureter.

The long narrow duct that conveys urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder.

Inulin is filtered but neither reabsorbed nor secreted. Its clearance is thus equal to the glomerular filtration rate.

Renin / Na⁺

Have an increased urine output

Filtered, and reabsorbed, but not secreted.

Increase

GFR would decrease

False

Decreased urine output

Active transport

Proximal convoluted tubule

• Release of hormones
• Maintenance of plasma pH
• Maintenance of plasma [electrolyte]
• Gluconeogenesis

ADH and aldosterone

By activating the renin-angiotensin system. This increases the amount of sodium and water that is reabsorbed by the kidneys, therefore increasing blood volume and pressure.

Higher pressure increased GFR or more filtrate.

Triple, double, single

C-C, C=C, C=C

Triple, double, single.

Formal charge = valence – assigned

Energy is always released when a bond is formed, and required when a bond is broken.

The less stable the bond, the greater will be the heat of combustion. The more stable the bond, the lower the heat of combustion.

To determine aromaticity,

4n + 2 pi

Remove spectator ions

∆G = ∆G_f(products) – ∆G_f(reactants)

with coefficients as the exponents.

22.4L at STP

Virtually all gasses can be considered ideal at common temps and pressures.

Electronegativity

Covalent

Solid

Ionic

Gravity

• 
• Sublimation - Solid to gas

• Red Blue in base
• Blue Red in acid

No color change either means it is in the opposite solution, or that the solution is neutral.

AB+CD → AD+CB

The lower the value of K_sp is, the lower the concentrations of the cation and anion in an aqueous solution and the lower the solubility of the compound in water.

Speed

P = CO x VR

• p - blood pressure
• CO - cardiac output
• VR - vascular resistance

most stable, largest, equatorial.

A site on a multi-subunit enzyme that is not the substrate binding site (not the active site) but that when reversibly bound by an effector induces a conformational change in the enzyme, altering its catalytic properties.

Three equivalents, because one OH^– ion is required to hydrolyze one ester linkage of a triacylglycerol molecule.

Several proteolytic enzymes, which are released into the small intestine and converted to their active forms of trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase.

Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria.

Mesoderm

Either on a sex chromosome (X, Y) or on an autosome.

Phagocytosis.

Phagocytosis requires that the cell change shape dramatically as is surrounds and engulfs large extracellular particles. This function relies on the microtubules to disassemble and reorganize. Inhibiting microtubule reorganization would therefore prevent phagocytosis.

2ⁿ

Where n is the haploid number of chromosomes.Ex. AaBbCc has 3 haploid chromosomes and so 2³ is 8

The splitting of centromeres.One difference between these two mechanisms is during respective anaphases. During anaphase in mitosis, sister chromatids are pulled apart. During anaphase of meiosis I, homologous pairs are separated into two daughter cells. It is not until anaphase II in meiosis that the centromere is split.

Nucleus

Cytoplasm.

This is done by ribosomes.

0

.5

.7

.9

1

1

.9

.7

.5

0

Multiply the top and bottom of the primary fraction, by the reciprocal of the fraction in the denominator. This will make the top a new fraction and the bottom one.

• Ex.
• 

Increased by 1/3

Whether or not a process or reaction can occur.

How fast or slow a process or rection can occur.

Fluid movement caused by the hotter portions of a fluid rising and the cooler portions of a fluid sinking.

• Electromagnetic waves emitted from a hot body into the surrounding environment.
• Light colors radiate and absorb less
• Dark colors radiate and absorb more
• Black Body Radiator - perfect theoretical radiator

• Molecular collisions along a conduit
• Analogous to current flow through a wire or H₂O through a pipe

The amount of energy (in Joules or Calories) a system can absorb per temperature unit (J/K or cal/˚C).

C = q/∆T

Is for a given substance only and is defined as the heat capacity per unit mass.

q = mc∆T

• 1.0 cal/g˚C
• or
• 4.18 J/g˚C

• ∆E = q + w
• Work done on the system (+)
• Work done by the system (–)

• Heat cannot be changed completely into work in a cyclical process
• Entropy in an isolated system can never decrease

Pure substances at absolute zero have an entropy of zero

Temperature exists