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the set of forces that initiates, directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal
motivation
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the physical ot psychological requirements that must be met to ensure survival and well-being
needs
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a reward that is tangible, visible to others, and given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks and behaviors
extrinsic reward
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a natural reward associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake
intrinsic reward
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theory that states that people will be motivated when they perceive that they are being treated fairly
equity theory
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the contributions employees make to a company
inputs
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the rewards employees recieve for their contributions to the organization
outcomes
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others with whom people compare themselves to determine if they've been treated unfairly
referents
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an employee's perception of how the rewards received from an organization compare with the employee's contributions to that organization
outcome/input ration
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a form of inequity in which you are getting fewer outcomes relative to inputs than your referent is getting
underreward
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a form of inequity in which you are getting more outcomes relative to inputs than your referent
overreward
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the perceived degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed
distributive justice
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the perceived fairness of the process used to make reward allocation decisions
procedural justice
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a thory that states that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded, and that they will be offered attractive rewards
expectancy theory
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the attractiveness or desirability of a reward or outcome
valence
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the perceived relationship between effor and performance
expectancy
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the percieved relationship between preformance and rewards
instrumentality
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theory that states that behavior is a function of its consequences, that behaviors followed by positive consequences will occur more frequently, and that behaviors followed by negative consequences, or not followed by positive consequences, will occur less frequently
reinforcement theory
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the process of changing behavior by changing the consequence that follws behaivior
reinforcement
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cause and effect relationships between the performnce of specific behaviors and specific consequences
reinforcement contingencies
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rules that specify which behaviors will be reinforced, which consequences will follow these behaviors, and the schedule by which the consequences will be delivered
schedule of reinforcement
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reinforcement that strengthens behavior by following behaviors with desirable consequences
positive reinforcement
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reinforcement that stregthens behavior by witholding an unpleasant consequence
negative reinforcement
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reinforcement that weakens behavior with undesirable consequences
punishment
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reinforcement in which a positive consequence is no longer allowed to follow a previously reinforced behavior, thus weaking the behavior
extinction
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a schedule that requires a consequence to be adminstered after every instance of a behavior
continuous reiforcement schedule
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a schedule in which consequences are delivered after a specified or average time has elapsed or after a specified of average number of behaviors has occured
intermittent reinforcement schedule
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an intermittent schedule in which consequences follow a behavior only after a fixed time has elapsed
fixed interval reinforcement schedule
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an intermittent schedule in which the time between a behavior and the following consequences varies around a specified average
variable interval reinforcement schedule
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an intermittent schedule in which consequences are delivered following a specific number of behaviors
fixed ratio reinfrocement schedule
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a target, objective , or result that someone tries to accomplish
goal
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a theory that states that people will be motivated to the extent to which the accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback that indicates their progress toward goal achievement
goal-setting theory
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the extent to which goals are detailed, exact, and unambiguous
goal specificity
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the extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to accomplish
goal difficulty
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the extent to which people consciuodly understand and agree to goals
goal acceptance
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information about the quality or quantity of past perfoemnce that indicates whether progress is being made toward the accomplishment of a goal
performance feedback
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the ability to influence another person
power
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the process of affecting thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of another person
influence
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the right to influence another person
authority
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the range in which attempts to influence a person will be perceived as legitimate and will be actes on without a great deal of thought
zone of indifference
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power based on and agent's abililty to control rewards that a target wants
reward power
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power that is based on an agent's ability to cause an unpleasant experience for a target
coercive power
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power that is based on position and mutual agreement; agent and target agree that the agent has the right to influence the target
legitimate target
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an elusive power that is based on interpersonal attraction
referent power
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the power that exists when an agent has specialized knowledge or skills that the target needs
expert power
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activities that other groups depend on in order to complete their tasks
strategic contingencies
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access to an d control over important information
information power
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power ised for personal gain
personal power
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power used to create motivation or to accompllish group goals
social power
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a lack of power
powerlessness
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the use of power and influence in organzations
organizational politics
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actions not officially sanctioned ny an organization that are taken to influence others in an order to meet one's personal goals
poitical behavior
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the ability to get things done through favorable interpersonal relationships outside of informally prescribed organiztional mechanisms
political skills
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sharing power in such a way that individuals leatn to believe in their ability to do the job
empowerment
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the process of influencing others to achieve group or organizational goals
leadership
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leadership theory that holds that effective leaders possess a similar set of traits or characteristics
trait theory
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relatively stable characteristics, such as abilities, psychological motives, and consistent pattern of behavior
traits
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degree to which a leaders structures the roles of followers by setting goals, giving directions, setting deadlines, and assigning tasks
initiating structure
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the extent to which a leader is friendly, approachable, and supportive and shows concern for employees
consideration
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the way leader generally behaves towards followers
leadership style
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leadership theory that states that in order to maximize work group performance, leaders must be attached to the situations that best fit their leadeship styles
contingency theory
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degree to which a particular situation either permits or denies a leader the chance to influence the behavior of a group
situational favorableness
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degre to which followers respect, trust, and like their leaders
leader-member relations
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the degree to which the requirements of a subordinate's tasks are clearly specified
task structure
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the degree to which leaders are able to hire, fire, reward, and punishment power
position tower
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leadership theory that states that leaders can increase subordinate satisfaction and performance by clarifying and clearing the paths to goals and by increasing the number and kinds of rewards available for attainment
path-goal theory
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leadeship style in which the leader lets employees know precisely what is expected of them, gives them specific guidelines for performing taskset standards of performance, and makes sure that people standard rules and regualtions
directive leadership
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a leadership style in which the leader is friendly and approachable, shows concern for employees and their welfare, treats them as equals, and creates a friendly climate
supportive leadership
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a leadeship style in which the leader consults employees for their suggestions and inputs before making decisions
participative leadership
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a leadership style in which the leader sets challenging goals, has high expectations of employees, and displays confidence that employees will assume responsibility and put forth extraordinary effort
achievement-oriented leadership
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a theory that suggests how a leader can determine an appropriate amount of employee particpation when making decisions
normative decision theory
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leadership that creates a positive image of the future that motivates organizational memebers and provides direction for the future planning and goal setting
visonary leadership
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the behavioral tendencies and personal characteristics of leaders that create strong relationships between them and their followers
charismatic leadership
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charismatic leaders who provide developmental opprtunities for followers, are open to positive and negative feedback, and have moral standards that emphasize the larger interests of the group, organization, or society
ethical charismatics
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charismatic leaders who control and manipulate followers, do wha is best for themselves instead of their oragnizations, and have moral standards that put their interests before everyone else's
unethical charismatic
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leadership that generates awareness and acceptance of a group's purpose and mission and gets employees to see beyond their own needs and self-interests for the good of the group
transformational leadership
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leadership based on the an exchange process, in ehich followers are rewarded for good performance and punished for poor performance
transactional leadership
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the process of transmitting information from one person or place to another
communication
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the process by which individuals attend to, organize, interpret, and retain information from their environments
perception
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the personality,, psychology, or experienced-based differences that influence people to ignore or pay attention to particular stimuli
perceptual filters
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the tendency to fill in gapsof missing information by assuming that what we don't know is consistent with what we already know
closure
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the tendency for people to perceive themselves as personally and situationally similar to someone who is having trouble or difficulty
defensive bias
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the system of official channels that carry organizationally approved approved messages and information
formal communication channels
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communication that flows from higher to lower levels in an organization
downward communication
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communication that flows from lower to higher levels
upward communication
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communication that flows among managers and workers who are at the same organzational level
horizontal communication
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the transmission of messages from employee to employee outside the formal communication channels
informal communication channel (grapevine)
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communicating with someone for the direct purpose of improving the person's on-the-job performance or behavior
coaching
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communicating with someone about non-job-related issues that may be affecting or interfering with the person's performance
counseling
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movement of the body and face
kinesics
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the pitch, rate, tone, volume, and speaking pattern of one's voice
paralanguage
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the method used to deliver an oral or written transmission
communcation medium
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the act or process of perceiving sounds
hearing
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making a conscious effort to hear
listening
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understanding the speaker's perspective and personal frame of reference and giving feedback that conveys that understanding to the speaker
empathetic listening
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feedback that disapproves without any intention of being helpful and almost always causes a negative or defensive reaction in the recipient
destructive feedback
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feedback intended to be helpful, corrective, and/or encouraging
constructive feedback
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web/software-based discussion tools that allow employees to ask questions and share knowledge
collaborative discussion sites
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information that is collected form surveys given to organizational members and then compiled, disseminated, and used to develop action plans for improvement
survey feedback
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a personal website that provides personal opinions or recommendations, news summaries, and reader comments
blog
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regulatory process establishing standards to achieve organizational goals, comparing actual performance to the standards, and taking corrective action when necessary
control
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a basis of comparison for measuring the extent to which various kinds of organizational performance are satisfactory or unsatisfactory
standards
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the process of steering or keeping the course
cybernectic
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a mechanism for gathering information about performance deficiencies after they occur
feedback control
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a mechanism for gathering information about performance deficiencies as they occur, thereby eliminating or shortening the delay between performance and feedback
concurrent control
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a mechanism of monitoring performance inputs rather than outputs to prevent or minimize performance deficiencies before they occur
feedforward control
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the situation in which behavior and work procedures do not conform to standards
control loss
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the costs associated with implementing or maintaining control
regualtion costs
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the extetn to which it is possible to implement each step in the control process
cybernetic control
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the use of hierachical authrity to influence employee behavior by rewarding or punishing employees for compliance or noncomplinance with organizational policies and rules
bureaucratic control
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the use of observable measures of worker behavior or outputs to assess performance and influence behavior
objective control
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the regiulation of behaviors and actions that workers perform on the job
behavior control
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the regualtion of workers' results or outputs through rewards and incentives
output control
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the regualtion of workers' behavior and decisions through widely shared organizational values and beliefs
normative control
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the regualtion of workers behavior and decisions through work group values and beliefs
concertive control
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measurement of organizational performance in four equally important areas: finaces, customers, internal operations, and innovation and learning
balanced scorecard
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performance improvement in part of the organization at the expense of decreased performance in another
suboptimization
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a type of analysis that predicts how changes in a business will affect its ability to take in more cash than it pays out
cash flow analysis
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accounting statements, also called profit-and-loss statements, that show what has happened to an organization's income, expenses, and net profit over a period of time
income statements
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calculations used to track a business's liquidity, efficiency, and profitability over time compared to other businesses in its industry
financial ratios
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quantitative plans through which managers decide how to allocate available money to best accomplish company goals
budgets
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the amount by which company profits exceed the cost of capital in a given year
economic value added
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a performance assessment in which companies identify which customers are leaving and measure the rate at which they are leaving
customer defections
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customer perception that the product quality is excellent for the price offered
value
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an adaptive response mediated by individual differences and/or psychological processes, that is a consequence of any action that places special psychological/physical demands on a person
stress
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the person or event that triggers the stress response
stressor
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a steady state of bodiliy functioning and equilibrium
homeostasis
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the embodiment of a person's perfect self
ego-ideal
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how a person sees himself, both positvely and negatively
self-image
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an imbalance preoccupation with work at the expense of home and personal life satisfaction
workaholism
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a cost associated with absenteeism, tardinessm strikes and work stoppages, and turnover
participation problem
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an organizational cost resulting from court awards for job distress
compensation award
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a complex of personality and behavior characteristics, including competitiveness, time urgency, social status insecurity, aggression, hostitility, and quest for achievement
type A behavior pattern
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a perosnality characterized by commitment, control and challenge and, hence resistant to distress
personality hardiness
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a way of managing stressful events by changing them into less subjectively stressful events
transformational coping
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an unhealthy, insecure patternof behavior that leads to speration in relationships with other people
conterdependence
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an unhealthy, inseceur pattern of behavior that leads to preoccupoied attempts to achieve security through realtionships
overdependence
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an organiztional philosophy according to which people and organizations should take joint responsibility for promotinghealth and prventing distress and strain
preventive stress management
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