Bio Final

Discovered that one gene= one enzyme

Discovered the transforming factor between s strain and R strain

Smoothstrain causes pneumonia and the Rough strain does not. Griffith discovered that something from the heat killed smooth bacteria and turned rough bacteria into smooth and he called it?

- Concluded that DNA is the genetic material·    

– perfected the transforming factor·    

- discovered that DNA is made of nucleotides

5 carbon sugar, phosphate group, Nitrogen base

• Purines
• -Double ring structure
• -Adenine and Guanine

• Pyrimidines
• -Single ring structure
• -Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil

 

• Discovered the Rule:   G=C   (George Clooney)
•                                     A=T   (Anne Taylor)·   

- Discovered that DNA is a double helix·    

- Built a model of the double helix that confirmed the others research

• 1. Attachment
• 2. Injection
• 3. Replication
• 4. Assembly
• 5. Release

-virus attaches to its host

-virus injects its DNA into the host cell 

-virus copies its genetic material many times

-virus assembles more viruses

-viruses are released from the cell to attach to new cells

• double stranded, sugar= deoxyribose, double helix shape, pairs of bases cytosine, guanine or thymine, adenine.
• From the top rail, the strand is said to be oriented from 5 to 3
• The strand on the bottom runs opposite 3 to 5
• Located in Nucleus

• 1.    Unwinding--DNA unwinds at different spots called origins                 
• 2.  Base pairing- 2 daughter strands are made differently -      Leadingstrand and     Laggingstrand
• 3.    Joining-  DNA polymerase removes RNA primer and fills it in place with DNA nucleotides

Built continuously with out breaks

• - makes several small fragments of DNA, built
• discontinuously

Fragments made by Lagging strand, connected by DNA ligase

single stranded, sugar= ribose, nitrogen bases : Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and uracil, 3 types

• 1. Messenger RNA-takes the genetic code to the ribosome   
• 2. Ribosomal RNA-combines with proteins to make the ribosome structure
• 3. Transfer RNA-carries amino acids

• located in Nucleus, turns DNA to mRNA, 1st
• step in making proteins

Located in cytoplasm, RNA turns to protein. Codons

group of 3 nucleotides on the messenger RNA that specifies one amino acid.

made up of amino acids, peptide bonds link the amino acids together.

-link each amino acids together to form proteins

mistake in DNA, substitution, deletion, insertion

Codon reversed with another

• Factors that limit cell growth is the ratio of surface area to volume. As the cell grows its volume increases more rapidly than the surface area.
• Diffusion over a large distance= slow
• Diffusion over a small distance= fast

prevents the cell from becoming to large, also is the way the cell reproduces so that you grow and heal injuries

• Cells reproduce by a cycle of growing and dividing
• All cells start out in interphase and then enter cell division, Mitosis and cytokinesis.

• Before mitosis and meiosis, 1st stage of Cell cycle
• G1 phase: first growth phase
• S phase: DNA is copied
• G2 phase: second growth phase
• proteins needed for cell division are produced
• cell prepares for the division

• Growth
• 1. Prophase
• 2. Metaphase
• 3. Anaphase
• 4. Telephase

• The cells chromatids are attached at the centromere
• Spindle fibers form in the cytoplasm
• The nuclear envelope seems to disappear
• Spindle fibers attach to the sister chromatids

• Sister chromatids are pulled along the spindle apparatus towards the center of the cell
• Line up in the middle of the cell

• The microtubules of the spindle apparatus begin to shorten
• The sister chromatids separate
• The chromosomes move towards the poles of the cell

• The chromosomes arrive at the poles and begin to relax
• 2 new nuclear membranes begin to form and the nucleoli reappear
• the spindle apparatus disassembles

 

• In animal cells, microfilaments, constrict, or pinch the cytoplasm, they create a cleavage furrow
• In plant cells a new structure called a plate form

• sexual reproduction, production of gametes, comes after mitosis 
• 
  

sex cells (egg and sperm) haploid·    

body cells- diploid·    

half the chromosome number, 1 of each pair of chromosomes·    

• 2 of each type of chromosome (2n), twice the haploid
• number·    

sperm enters egg·    

fertilized egg

one of 2 paired chromosomes, one from each parent

chromosomes 1-22 

23rd chromosome    

XX    

XY

 separation of homologous chromosomes

separation of sister chromatids

• Pairing of homologous chromosomes occurs (synapsis)
• Each chromosome consists of 2 chromatids
• The nuclear envelope breaks down
• Crossing over produces exchange of genetic info

• Chromosome centromeres attach to spindle fibers
• Homologous chromosomes line up at the equator

Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles

• The spindle fibers break down
• Chromosomes uncoil and form 2 nuclei
• The cell divides
• 

• A 2nd set of phases begins as the spindle apparatus form sand the chromosomes condense
• 

• Chromosome centromeres attach to spindle fibers
• Homologous chromosomes line up at the equator

• The sister chromatids are pulled apart at the centromere by spindle fibers
• Move toward the opposite poles of the cell
• 

• The chromosomes reach the poles and the nuclear membrane and nuclei reform
• 

• Results in 4 haploid cells
• Each with n number of chromosomes

 

production of eggs

production of sperm, provide egg with nutrients

“Father of Genetics” Austrian monk, worked with pea plants, discovered how traits were inherited in a population

passing of traits by heredity

Transmission of traits from parents to their offspring

transfer of pollen from anthers to stigma in flowers

occurs within the same flower or same plant

occurs between different plants

study of heredity

segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a particular protein, occur inpairs·    

alternative form of a gene·    

capital letter (shields recessive trait)·    

lowercase letter (usually hidden)·    

genetic makeup of an organism (genes)·   

physical characteristics of an organism

when both alleles of a pair are the same·  

when both alleles of a pair are not the same

• Law of Dominance
• Law of Segregation
• Law of Independent assortment

Each trait is controlled by 2 factors, one factor (dominant) may mask the other factor (recessive) preventing it from having an affect

each allele a person has separates into different gametes

Gene pairs (homologous) will separate randomly into gametes. (metaphase I of meiosis)

 

• ratio of different physical traits
• 
  

Ratio ofthe different possible alleles

an individual with unknown genotype is crossed with a homozygous recessive individual

heterozygous is an intermediate phenotype between the 2 homozygous phenotypes, 2 alleles are blended.

Neither trait is dominant instead both traits are shown (No blending)

one allele is completely dominant over the other

 

3 or more alleles that control a trait