Solutions

• solvent - medium solute dissolved in
• solute - substance tt is dissolved in solvent e.g. salt

• gas in gas
• gas in liquid
• liquid in liquid
• solid in solid

• solutions in which water is solvent
• transparent but can have colour

• molc w/ uneven distribution o electrons
• positive charge one side, negative other
• water

• molc which electrons even distributed among atoms, no charge
• carbon dioxide
• polar covalent bond can exist but no partial charge

attractive force BETWEEN molc

forces inside molc

• physical state
• melting point
• boiling point
• surface tension
• hardness and texture
• solubility in various solvents

• compound's melting point
• boiling point
• surface tension all increase

• london dispersion forces
• dipole-dipole forces
• hydrogen bonds

• intermolec frc attrtaction forms b/twn slightly positive end o one polar molc and slightly neg end another polar molc
• relatively strong
• occur between all polar molc
• more polar a substance, stronger dd force o attraction

• weak attractive force acting between all entities caused by temp imbalance electrons
• larger mol = more electrons/protons = stronger orces = higher melting pointf

unusually strong dipole dipole force b/twn hydrogen atom and FON, fluorine, oxygen nitrogen

• van der waals forces
• weak forces attraction between molc, includes ddf and ldf

quantity o given solute in solution

having relatively small quantity solute per unit vol o solution

having relatively large quantity o solute per unit vol o solution

• percentage weight by volume, g/100 ml
• percentage volume by volume, ml/100ml
• percentage weight by weight, g/100g

mass solute + mass solvent

• if there's uneven uneven charges
• if uneven charges cancel out, CO2, O2, no dipole dipole but can still be hydrogen bonding
• use electroneg for EACH bond

molc compounbds w/ many hydrogen bonds

strong intermolc forces

• small in size, highly polar, capcity for hydrogen bonding
• =signif for life on earth

• exist as liquid at room temp
• keeps body fluids liquid over large range temps

• ice to float
• water freezes top to down allows life underneath

• pulls water into round droplets
• high surface tension
• allows water walking

• enables organisms to retain water (wax on leaves)
• allows organisms to store non-polar substances (fats, oils)

separation o ions tt occurs when ionic compound dissolves

• 1. water molc approaches crystal = reorient themselves b/c negative end water attracted to positive end ionic solid
• 2. water-ion attractions pull ions away from crystal while ionic bonds hold ions together
• 3. a) if attraction b/twn water and ionic solid = stronger than ionic bonds within ionic solid = dissolve
• b) if not no dissolve
• 4. as ions leave leave crystal, surrounded by sphere water molc so can't attract each other again

• hydrocarbons b/c large, covalent bonds & non-polar
• no attractive forces between water and hydrocarbons
• other non-polar substances soluble in hydrocarbons
• L-D forces loosely attract solute molc to hydrocarbon allowing it dissolve
• bigger substances = bigger LD frcs

when attractive frcs b/twn solute and solvent = stronger than attractive frcs within either solute/solvent

• C n V triangle
• C V Vsolv
• CWVsolv

#moles solute dissolved in 1L solution

process decreasing concen o aq solution by adding more water to small amount initial concentrated (stock) solution

• C1V1=C2V2
• ensure constant units

• find mole amount, CV = n
• find grams, nM = m

max. amnt solute tt'll dissolve in givent amnt solvent, unit usually g solute/100 mL o solvent

solubility lvl o solvent hasn't been reached and if more solute added, will cont. to dissolve

solubility lvl o solvent just been reached and if more solute added = no dissolve

compounds w/ low solubility very little solute will dissolve 0.0001 mol/L

coumpounds w/ high solubuility lots o tt compound will dissolve 10.0 mol/L

• molecule size
• temperature
• pressure

smalled molc often more soluble than bigger molc

• depends on state
• solids- solubility most solids increase w/ temp, increase temp = molc move faster causing solvent molc to hit solute molc more often breaks them apart faster
• e.g. molecular, ionic
• liquids - not generally affected by temp
• gases - solubility gas decrease w/ high temp, trapped gas molc more opportunity to escape solvent
• inverse linear relationship

• solubility gas dependent on pressure gas above liquid
• gas molc will move fr area high pressure to lower so if pressure outside solvent = higher, gas dissolves in

• polar liquids solubility increase w/ temp
• non-polar dont dissolve, immiscible (forms separate layer)
• liquids w/ small amounts polar molc w/ hydrogen bonding dissolve in water, miscible (mix well in all proportions)
• elements have low solubility in water e.g. carbon
• halogens & oxygen dissolve to very tiny extent still reactive in small concentrations

• chemical equation tt shows all high solubility ionic compounds in their dissociated form
• e.g. AgNO₃(aq) + NaCl_(aq) -> NaNO3_(aq) + AgCl_(s)
• Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) -> Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + AgCl(s)
• rewrite w/ charges, solids don't have

entity tt doesn't change or take part in chemical reaction

• way o representing reaction by writing only ions or neutral subst specifically involved in overall chemical reaction
• Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) -> AgCl(s)
• cross out spectator ions

• compounds remain in solution, no reaction
• one reactions with other -> precipitate, formation gas, or formation water (H+ and OH-)

• write with total ionic equation
• always convert mL to L
• use table

• parts per million
• 1 ppm = 1g/10^6 mL
• 1mg/L
• 1 ug/g
• 1g/ 1000L
• 1 mg/kg

mol/L

• mass/volume
• molar mass/ [ ]