Cumulative Review 2.txt

All are four-ringed structures.

An amphipathic substance is one that is polar at one end of the molecule (hydrophilic) and nonpolar (hydrophobic) at the other.

Essential means that your body cannot synthesize it and therefor must get it from its environment- sun, food, etc.

• Disulfide bonds (covalent)
• Ionic bonds (salt bridge)
• Hydrophobic interactions
• Hydroden bonding
• Proline turns
• Van der Waals' forces

1˚ structure (amino acid sequence)

• Acid- electrostatic bonds
• Heat- all forces
• Urea- hydrogen bonds
• Mercaptoethanol- disulfide bonds

To refold simply remove the denaturing agent

Between the CO group of an AA and the NH group of the AA four (4) residues ahead of it; the helix is right-handed.

• α - animals
• β - bacteria

• 1) Nitrogenous Base
• 2) 5-C sugar
• 3) Phosphate Group

Hydroxyl group always at 3' carbon. base at 1' carbon. phosphate at 5' carbon.

NADH, ATP, DNA, RNA, etc.

Organic compound made in plants and animals vulnerable to heat.

• Riboflavin
• Thiamine
• Cobalamin

• Inorganic compounds (often metals).
• Found in soil and water not vulnerable to heat.

• -ase = enzyme
• -tase = ATP-requiring enzyme

• Water-soluble
• Fat-soluble

Theory of enzyme specificity. substrate plays role in final shape of enzyme and that enzyme is partially flexible.

Only the correct key will activate the lock. very specific.

Non-protein species NOT permanently attached to the enzyme but required by the enzyme to function.

Non-protein species permanently attached to the enzyme and required by the enzyme to function.

• Aspartic Acid
• Glutamic Acid

• Arginine
• Histidine
• Lysine

Arginine, Histidine, Lysine

Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid

OH^–

NO₃^–

NO₂^–

ClO₃^–

ClO₂^–

ClO^–

HClO₄

CO₃^–2

HCO₃^–

NH₃

NH₄⁺

SO₄^–2

PO₄^–3

MnO₄^–2

-:C≡N:

(CN^–)

A field that exists between any two objects with mass.

An invisible influence that can exert a force on a mass or charge.

(In space)

F = mg

(Near earth)

(In space)

PE = mgh

(Near earth)

• Friction opposes sliding not motion.
• If there is sliding, it's kinetic friction; if there's no sliding, it's static friction.
• Static µ is always greater than kinetic µ.
• Surface area does not increase friction when the mass is the same.

F_f = µ_(s/k)F_N

F_f = µ_(s/k)mgcos

F = mgsin

F_N = mgcos

V_f = √(2gh)

F = k∆x

• x - displacement
• k - spring constant

• k - spring constant
• x - displacement

T = 2π√(m/k)

(mass on a spring)

T = 2π√(L/g)

(pendulum)

• T - period (time/wave)
• m - mass
• k - spring constant
• L - length of pendulum
• g - gravity

• Terminal velocity
• Constant velocity
• Objects at rest
• Balanced fulcrums or boards on strings
• Objects floating in liquid

• T = F
• T = mg
• T = Frsin

• - lever arm
• r - distance between the force and the point of rotation.
• rsin - always equals , but r = only when = 90˚

Equilibrium - list all the forces and put them equal to one another.

Not Equilibrium - list all the forces and add "ma" to the loosing side.

If a string is pulling a ball into a circular motion, the string's force on the ball is centripetal and the ball's force on the string is centrifugal.

Centrifugal does not exist.

• - angular frequency (rad/s)
• v - tangential velocity (m/s)
• r - radius (m)
• f - frequency (Hz)

For the MCAT angular frequency and angular velocity are synonymous.

• An object is in rotational equilibrium if:
• 1. It is NOT rotataing
• 2. It is rotating with a constant angular velocity/frequency

momentum is inertia increased by velocity and is always conserved (remains constant) in an isolated system.

• Impulse = ∆
• Impulse = m∆v
• Impulse = F_avgt

• If there is no change in velocity, there can be no impulse.
• The greater the change in velocity the greater the change in impulse.

• (KE₁ + KE₂)_before = (KE₁ + KE₂)_after
• In elastic collisions momentum and energy are both conserved.

m₁v₁ + m₂v₂ = m₁v₁ + m₂v₂

In inelastic collisions momentum is conserved but energy is not. For perfectly inelastic collisions the equations becomes:

m₁v₁ + m₂v₂ = (m₁ + m₂)v₃

Force/Area

∆dimension/original dimension

stress/strain

• Young's modulus - simultaneous pushing or pulling, perfectly lined up with one another.
• Shear modulus - simultaneous pushing or pulling not perfectly lined up.
• Bulk modulus - simultaneous compression from all sides.

∆L = L_o∆T

• T - temperature
• L - length in inches
• - coefficient of thermal expansion

The energy of internal vibrations of molecules or atoms within a system.

Energy dissipated as heat. On the MCAT this usually means heat dissipated from a collision.

Heat energy and internal energy are almost synonymous.

The energy contained within chemical bonds, or the energy stored/released due to the separation and/or flow of electrons.

ME = KE + PE

• W = ∆Energy
• W = Fdcos

Units - Joules () or ()

Force per unit area exerted upon a surface by the weight of the air above that surface in the atmosphere.

Force exerted by a fluid on a point equal to the density of the fluid times the depth.

The pressure difference between a system and the surrounding atmosphere.

• 760 torr
• 760 mmHg
• 101 kPa
• 101,000 Pa
• 14.7 psi

P = F/A

Pressure = Force / Area

P = gh

•  - fluid density
• g - gravity
• h - height of fluid

SG = D_substance/D_H2O

D = density

1cm³ = 1mL

1L = 1kg

1mL = 1gram

1000 kg/m³

1.0 g/cm³ 

The ratio of the density of the object to the density of the liquid.

The buoyant force is exactly equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.

F_buoyant = vg

• = fluid density
• v = volume of displaced fluid
• g = gravity

The apparent weight of a submerged object is the actual weight minus the buoyant force.

The apparent weight gives us 1) the buoyant force and 2) the weight of that volume of fluid.

• Q = AV
• Q = flow
• A = cross-sectional area of tube (m²)
• V = velocity of the fluid (m/s)

Application (cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate)

K = P + gh + 1/2 v2

• P = random kinetic energy of the fluid molecules
• gh = the gravitational potential energy of the fluid
• 1/2v² = the energy due to moving fluid molecules
• K = a constant

v = √(2gh)

The intensity of intermolecular forces per unit length at the surface of a liquid.

An attraction between unlike particles.

An attraction between particles of the same kind.

e- = 1.6 E^-19 C

From positive (+) to negative (–)

From negative (–) to positive (+)

The flow of eletrons from areas of higher density (where they strongly repel each other) to areas of lower density (where there is less repulsion).

Field = an invisible influence that can exert a force on a mass or charge.

Equates to "real" gravity or gravity in space.

Equate to "assumed" gravity or gravity near earth.

E - Strength of electric field

K - constant

r - radius or distance

q - charge

E = V/d

• E - strength of an electric field
• V - voltage
• d - distance

V = Kq/r

• V - voltage
• K - constant
• r - radius

V = PE/q

Voltage is equal to potential energy over charge

R = pL/A

• p - resistivity
• L - length
• A - cross-sectional area

U = 1/2 CV²

U - PE

C - capacitance

V - voltage

C = Q/V

Q - charge

• Insulator
• Polarizable
• Resistor
• Makes more charge build up on the plates

• Plate area (directly related)
• Plate thickness (no effect)
• Distance between plates (inversely related)
• Strength of dielectric (directly related)

• Positive terminal has highest electric potential.
• Electrons build up on negative terminal and move to positive.

• There is always a voltage drop across any resistor.
• Current through a resistor is inversely related to resistance. 2x resistance = 1/2 current.

• Must be simplified, eg. no more than one of each component.
• 1. Resistors in series: add directly
• 2. Resistors in parallel: add the inverses and take the inverse
• 3. Capacitors in series: add the inverses and take the inverse
• 4. Capacitors in parallel: add directly
• 5. Batteries in series: add directly
• 6. Batteries in parallel: total voltage = the highest voltage of any one of the batteries in parallel

V = IR

• V - voltage
• I - current
• R - resistance

P = IV

P - power

• Alternating current is created by a generator and can be represented by a sine wave.
• Direct current is created by a battery.

F = qvBsin

• F - force
• q - charge
• v - voltage
• B - magnetic field 

.5

.333

.25

.2

.125

1

1.4

1.7

2

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

3

3.1

3.3

3.4

3.6

3.7

3.8

To the left

To the right

3

10 m/s^2

0

.5

.7

.9

1

1

.9

.7

.5

0

A_circle = πr²

C = 2πr

A_triangle = 1/2bh

Vol_sphere = 4/3πr³

A_sphere = 4πr²

• π radians = 180˚
• 2π radians = 360˚
• 6 rads ≈ to one rotation (Ex. 12 rad/s ≈ 2 revolutions/s)

E^-1

E^-3

E^-6

E^-9

E^-12

E^-15

E¹

E²

E³

E⁶

E⁹

E¹²

V_avg = (V₁ + V₂) / 2

Time to reach peak * average velocity

Total time in air * X component of V_initial

No acceleration. Can however have velocity but a = 0

Yes

Has both magnitude and direction.

Has only magnitude

The velocity of a body remains constant unless the body is acted upon by an external force.

F=ma

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

The ability of an object to resist a change to its velocity.

C_mass = (r₁m₁ + r₂m₂ + r₃m₃...)/m_total

r - the displacement vector between a reference point and each vector.

At the center of mass.

The geometric center, irrespective of the center of mass.

• No acceleration
• No NET force
• All forces sum to zero
• No change in direction
• The object is in equilibrium

Distance = rate * time

Range = V_x * time

• Horizontal velocity never changes (ignoring wind resistance)
• Horizontal acceleration always = 0
• Vertical acceleration always = 10 m/s²
• Vertical behavior is always symmetrical (upward = downward)
• Time in the air depends on the vertical component of velocity only.
• Range depends on both the vertical and horizontal components.
• Time is always the same for both the x and y components of the motion.

X = 1/2at²

V = √(2gh)

t_air = 2V/g

V must be the vertical component of initial velocity

Greater surface area = more air resistance

Less aerodynamic = more air resistance

Rough surface = more air resistance

Greater velocity = more air resistance

The purpose of the passage, the reason for which the author wrote the piece. What the author is "getting at".

Requires observation more than inference.

The opinions, attitudes, likes, dislikes, beliefs, and character traits of the author.

• 1. Theories hypothesis
• 2. Viewpoints philosophies
• 3. Authorities or critics
• 4. Authors or their works
• 5. Artists or their works
• 6. Historical figures
• 7. Experiments
• 8. Opinions
• 9. Forms of government or institutions
• 10. Objects or subjects

Mild and simple jumps from information given to information logically arrived at

Step back and get the larger idea. DON'T consentrate on details!

Endoplasmic reticulum

Mitochondria

Nucleus. DNA cannot leave and is only found here. There is however a small amount found in the mitochondria.

Site of rRNA transcription and ribosome assembly.

Covered with ribosomes; all proteins not bound for the cytosol are made here.

Lipid synthesis and modification. NOT LIPID METABOLISM.

Cellular "post office;" organize, package, modify, excrete, etc.

Have their own DNA with variations to the nuclear genetic code passed through the maternal line only.

Place of lipid metabolism.

Theory suggests they evolved from aerobic prokaryotes in symbiosis with a eukaryotic cell.

The centrosome is an amorphous area of proteins and nucleating factors within which the centrioles are located. It organizes microtubules, flagella and cilia; it also plays a key role in cell division.

• pH of 5
• Digests cell parts
• Fuses with phagocytotic vesicles
• Participates in cell death (apoptosis)
• Forms by budding off from the Golgi

• Self-replicates
• Detoxifies chemicals
• Participates in lipid metabolism

A protein that is the main constituent of microtubules.

Microscopic network of filaments that give shape to cells.

Segregates chromosomes during cell division.

Filaments in muscle that provide movement.

• Respiratory System (lungs)
• Nervous System (ependymal cells)
• Reproductive System (fallopian tubes)

Whipping motion; microtubules made of tubulin.

Spinning/rotating motion; simple helices made of flagellin.

Water-proof barriers

Tunnels allowing exchange

Strongest cellular junction but are not watertight barriers.

• Diffusion
• Facilitated Diffusion
• Active Transport
• Secondary Active Transport

Major component of all cell membranes that form lipid bilayers. Most phospholipids contain a diglyceride.

A protein molecule or protein assembly permanently attached in a biological membrane.

Transport substances such as molecules and ions across the membrane, within the cell, or can be involved in vesicular transport.

Organic chemical substance classified as a waxy steroid of fat. Essential structural component of mammalian cell membranes and is required to establish proper membrane permeability and fluidity.

Signal-receiving molecules embedded in the cell wall.

The release of cellular substances contained in cell vesicles by fusion of the vesicular membrane with the plasma membrane and release of the contents to the exterior of the cell.

Incorporation of substances into a cell by phagocytosis or pinocytosis.

Cell eating

Cell drinking

• Epithelial
• Nervous
• Connective
• Muscle

Organ systems > Organs > Tissues > Cells

Slow, general, long-lasting

Fast, specific, short-lived

Local mediator hormones only

Having a pair of each type of chromosome, so that the basic chromosome number is doubled. 46 in humans.

The haploid number is the number of chromosomes in a gamete of an individual. This is distinct from the monoploid number (x), which is the number of unique chromosomes in a single complete set. Gametes (sperm, and ova) are haploid cells.

Two genetically identical, diploid daughter cells.

Four genetically distinct, haploid daughter cells.

Any biomolecule soluble in non-polar solvents and insoluble in polar solvents.

All are four-ringed structures.

An amphipathic substance is one that is polar at one end of the molecule (hydrophilic) and nonpolar (hydrophobic) at the other.

22.4 L = 1 mol of gas

.0821

• 1e^-8 = 8pH
• 1e^-6 = 6pH
• 1e^-11 = 11pH

The compound with the greatest difference in electronegativities between the metal and nonmetal has the most ionic character. Electronegativities tend to decrease down a group of the periodic table.

Precession is the spin of protons, electrons, and neutrons in an atom. For a nonzero precession in the nucleus of an atom, you have to have an uneven number of nucleons.

= moles

moles x Avogadro (6.02e²³) = # ions

• Red Blue in base
• BlueRed in acid

No color change either means it is in the opposite solution, or that the solution is neutral.

Weak inter and intramolecular forces between non-polar molecules.

Ex. When The only thing that changes between molecules is their molecular weight, yet a trend developes in boiling points, these forces are responsible.

• Pendulum length.
• Acceleration of gravity.

Changing mass has no effect.

Charge (Coulombs) per unit time (seconds).

Therefore when given current and charge, simply divide current by charge to get frequency of electrons per second.

An autosome is a normal chromosome that is not an allosome.

An allosome is also called a sex chromosome. For example, in humans there are typically 22 pairs of autosomes and one allosome pair.

A mutation causes a premature stop codon and terminates translation.

Chemical messengers that are secreted by endocrine tissues and are transported by the bloodstream, instead of by ducts, to the target tissues where they alter cellular activity.

A negative number

V/m

180˚

That they both have a form of the electron transport chain.

The cyclical "ogger" protein that produces ATP at the end of the electron transport chain.

Anything ether