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Triacylglycerol (triglyceride) structure
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Description of basic steroid structure
All are four-ringed structures.
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Definition of amphipathic
An amphipathic substance is one that is polar at one end of the molecule (hydrophilic) and nonpolar (hydrophobic) at the other.
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Essential vs Non-Essential
Essential means that your body cannot synthesize it and therefor must get it from its environment- sun, food, etc.
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6 things responsible for the tertiary structure of proteins
- Disulfide bonds (covalent)
- Ionic bonds (salt bridge)
- Hydrophobic interactions
- Hydroden bonding
- Proline turns
- Van der Waals' forces
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Determines the protein folding structure
1˚ structure (amino acid sequence)
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Different protein denaturing agents and what they affect
- Acid- electrostatic bonds
- Heat- all forces
- Urea- hydrogen bonds
- Mercaptoethanol- disulfide bonds
To refold simply remove the denaturing agent
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Between which parts of how many AAs are the hydrogen bonds forming an alpha helix?
Between the CO group of an AA and the NH group of the AA four (4) residues ahead of it; the helix is right-handed.
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Digestible to humans α vs β
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Three components of nucleotides
- 1) Nitrogenous Base
- 2) 5-C sugar
- 3) Phosphate Group
Hydroxyl group always at 3' carbon. base at 1' carbon. phosphate at 5' carbon.
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Examples of Nucleotides
NADH, ATP, DNA, RNA, etc.
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Vitamins
Organic compound made in plants and animals vulnerable to heat.
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Examples of Vitamins
- Riboflavin
- Thiamine
- Cobalamin
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Minerals
- Inorganic compounds (often metals).
- Found in soil and water not vulnerable to heat.
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-tase vs. -ase?
- -ase = enzyme
- -tase = ATP-requiring enzyme
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Two important classifications of vitamins
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Induced fit theory
Theory of enzyme specificity. substrate plays role in final shape of enzyme and that enzyme is partially flexible.
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Lock and key theory
Only the correct key will activate the lock. very specific.
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Coenzyme
Non-protein species NOT permanently attached to the enzyme but required by the enzyme to function.
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Prosthetic group
Non-protein species permanently attached to the enzyme and required by the enzyme to function.
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Acidic Amino Acids
- Aspartic Acid
- Glutamic Acid
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Amino acids with a (+) charge
Arginine, Histidine, Lysine
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Amino acids with a (-) charge
Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid
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Gravity definition
A field that exists between any two objects with mass.
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Field definition
An invisible influence that can exert a force on a mass or charge.
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Universal Law of Gravitation (force due to gravity)
(In space)
F = mg
(Near earth)
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Formula for gravity, strength of gravitational field, acceleration due to gravity
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Gravitational Potential Energy
(In space)
PE = mgh
(Near earth)
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Friction facts
- Friction opposes sliding not motion.
- If there is sliding, it's kinetic friction; if there's no sliding, it's static friction.
- Static µ is always greater than kinetic µ.
- Surface area does not increase friction when the mass is the same.
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Force due to friction formula
F f = µ (s/k)F N
F f = µ (s/k)mgcos
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Force down an inclined plane formula
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Normal force on an inclined plane formula
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Velocity at the base of an inclined plane
Vf = √(2gh)
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Hooke's Law
F = k∆x
- x - displacement
- k - spring constant
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Range (horizontal distance traveled) formula
- k - spring constant
- x - displacement
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Simple Harmonic Motion formulas
T = 2π√(m/k)
(mass on a spring)
T = 2π√(L/g)
(pendulum)
- T - period (time/wave)
- m - mass
- k - spring constant
- L - length of pendulum
- g - gravity
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Equililbrium terms
- Terminal velocity
- Constant velocity
- Objects at rest
- Balanced fulcrums or boards on strings
- Objects floating in liquid
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Torque and lever arms
- - lever arm
- r - distance between the force and the point of rotation.
- rsin - always equals , but r = only when = 90˚
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Solving for systems in and not in equilibrium
Equilibrium - list all the forces and put them equal to one another.
Not Equilibrium - list all the forces and add "ma" to the loosing side.
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Centripetal vs. Centrifugal
If a string is pulling a ball into a circular motion, the string's force on the ball is centripetal and the ball's force on the string is centrifugal.
Centrifugal does not exist.
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Angular motion formulas
- - angular frequency (rad/s)
- v - tangential velocity (m/s)
- r - radius (m)
- f - frequency (Hz)
For the MCAT angular frequency and angular velocity are synonymous.
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Rotational equilibrium
- An object is in rotational equilibrium if:
- 1. It is NOT rotataing
- 2. It is rotating with a constant angular velocity/frequency
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Momentum
momentum is inertia increased by velocity and is always conserved (remains constant) in an isolated system.
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Impulse
- Impulse = ∆
- Impulse = m∆v
- Impulse = Favgt
- If there is no change in velocity, there can be no impulse.
- The greater the change in velocity the greater the change in impulse.
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Elastic Collisions
- (KE1 + KE2)before = (KE1 + KE2)after
- In elastic collisions momentum and energy are both conserved.
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Inelastic Collisions
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1v1 + m2v2
In inelastic collisions momentum is conserved but energy is not. For perfectly inelastic collisions the equations becomes:
m1v1 + m2v2 = (m1 + m2)v3
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Strain
∆dimension/original dimension
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Modulus of elasticity (ME)
stress/strain
- Young's modulus - simultaneous pushing or pulling, perfectly lined up with one another.
- Shear modulus - simultaneous pushing or pulling not perfectly lined up.
- Bulk modulus - simultaneous compression from all sides.
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Thermal expansion formula
∆L = L o∆T
- T - temperature
- L - length in inches
- - coefficient of thermal expansion
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Internal energy
The energy of internal vibrations of molecules or atoms within a system.
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Heat energy
Energy dissipated as heat. On the MCAT this usually means heat dissipated from a collision.
Heat energy and internal energy are almost synonymous.
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Chemical energy
The energy contained within chemical bonds, or the energy stored/released due to the separation and/or flow of electrons.
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Mechanical energy
ME = KE + PE
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Atmospheric Pressure
Force per unit area exerted upon a surface by the weight of the air above that surface in the atmosphere.
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Fluid Pressure
Force exerted by a fluid on a point equal to the density of the fluid times the depth.
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Gauge Pressure
The pressure difference between a system and the surrounding atmosphere.
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1 atm equivalents
- 760 torr
- 760 mmHg
- 101 kPa
- 101,000 Pa
- 14.7 psi
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General Pressure formula
P = F/A
Pressure = Force / Area
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Fluid Pressure formula
P = gh
- - fluid density
- g - gravity
- h - height of fluid
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Specific Gravity formula
SG = Dsubstance/DH2O
D = density
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Volume measurements of water
1cm3 = 1mL
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Mass/density of water
1L = 1kg
1mL = 1gram
1000 kg/m3
1.0 g/cm3
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For objects floating in fluid, the fraction submerged =
The ratio of the density of the object to the density of the liquid.
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Archimede's Principle
The buoyant force is exactly equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
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Buoyancy formula
Fbuoyant = vg
- = fluid density
- v = volume of displaced fluid
- g = gravity
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Apparent Weight
The apparent weight of a submerged object is the actual weight minus the buoyant force.
The apparent weight gives us 1) the buoyant force and 2) the weight of that volume of fluid.
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Flow Rate formula
- Q = AV
- Q = flow
- A = cross-sectional area of tube (m2)
- V = velocity of the fluid (m/s)
Application (cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate)
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Bernoulli's Equation
K = P + gh + 1/2 v2
P = random kinetic energy of the fluid molecules - gh = the gravitational potential energy of the fluid
- 1/2v2 = the energy due to moving fluid molecules
- K = a constant
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Velocity of H2O exiting a spigot formula
v = √(2gh)
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Surface Tension
The intensity of intermolecular forces per unit length at the surface of a liquid.
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Adhesion
An attraction between unlike particles.
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Cohesion
An attraction between particles of the same kind.
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Charge magnitude of an electron
e- = 1.6 E-19 C
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Current flows...
From positive (+) to negative (–)
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Electrons flow...
From negative (–) to positive (+)
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What is current?
The flow of eletrons from areas of higher density (where they strongly repel each other) to areas of lower density (where there is less repulsion).
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Electric Field
Field = an invisible influence that can exert a force on a mass or charge.
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Point Charge Field
Equates to "real" gravity or gravity in space.
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Constant Electric Field
Equate to "assumed" gravity or gravity near earth.
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Electric field equivalent to "g" gravity
E - Strength of electric field
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Electric field equivalent to "G" gravity constant
K - constant
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Electric field equivalent to "h" height
r - radius or distance
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Electric field equivalent to "m" inertial component
q - charge
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Strength of an e-field formula
E = V/d
- E - strength of an electric field
- V - voltage
- d - distance
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Voltage for point charge e-field formula
V = Kq/r
- V - voltage
- K - constant
- r - radius
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Voltage formula
V = PE/q
Voltage is equal to potential energy over charge
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Resistance formula
R = pL/A
- p - resistivity
- L - length
- A - cross-sectional area
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Capacitance formula
U = 1/2 CV2
U - PE
C - capacitance
V - voltage
C = Q/V
Q - charge
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Dielectric characteristics
- Insulator
- Polarizable
- Resistor
- Makes more charge build up on the plates
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Variables that affect capacitance
- Plate area (directly related)
- Plate thickness (no effect)
- Distance between plates (inversely related)
- Strength of dielectric (directly related)
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Capacitor charge vs. time graph
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Conceptual ideas of a battery
- Positive terminal has highest electric potential.
- Electrons build up on negative terminal and move to positive.
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Conceptual ideas of a resistor
- There is always a voltage drop across any resistor.
- Current through a resistor is inversely related to resistance. 2x resistance = 1/2 current.
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Solving circuits
- Must be simplified, eg. no more than one of each component.
- 1. Resistors in series: add directly
- 2. Resistors in parallel: add the inverses and take the inverse
- 3. Capacitors in series: add the inverses and take the inverse
- 4. Capacitors in parallel: add directly
- 5. Batteries in series: add directly
- 6. Batteries in parallel: total voltage = the highest voltage of any one of the batteries in parallel
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Ohm's Law
V = IR
- V - voltage
- I - current
- R - resistance
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Electric power formula
P = IV
P - power
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AC vs. DC
- Alternating current is created by a generator and can be represented by a sine wave.
- Direct current is created by a battery.
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Fmagnet on a charged particle formula
F = qvBsin
- F - force
- q - charge
- v - voltage
- B - magnetic field
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Decimal shift larger
To the left
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Decimal shift smaller
To the right
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Rounded value of gravity
10 m/s^2
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Area of a circle
Acircle = πr2
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Circumference of a circle
C = 2πr
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Area of a triangle
Atriangle = 1/2bh
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Volume of a sphere
Volsphere = 4/3πr3
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Surface area of a sphere
Asphere = 4πr2
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Degrees to radians
- π radians = 180˚
- 2π radians = 360˚
- 6 rads ≈ to one rotation (Ex. 12 rad/s ≈ 2 revolutions/s)
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Average velocity
Vavg = (V1 + V2) / 2
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Determining height reached
Time to reach peak * average velocity
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Determining horizontal distance
Total time in air * X component of Vinitial
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Net force = 0 means...
No acceleration. Can however have velocity but a = 0
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If volume changes, is work being done?
Yes
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Vector attributes
Has both magnitude and direction.
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Scalar attributes
Has only magnitude
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Newton's first law
The velocity of a body remains constant unless the body is acted upon by an external force.
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Newton's third law
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
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Inertia definition
The ability of an object to resist a change to its velocity.
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Center of Mass formula
Cmass = (r1m1 + r2m2 + r3m3...)/mtotal
r - the displacement vector between a reference point and each vector.
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Center of gravity
At the center of mass.
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Center of buoyancy
The geometric center, irrespective of the center of mass.
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"Constant Velocity" or " Constant Speed" means
- No acceleration
- No NET force
- All forces sum to zero
- No change in direction
- The object is in equilibrium
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Distance or height traveled formula
Distance = rate * time
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Range (horizontal distance traveled) formula
Range = Vx * time
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When facing projectiles think:
- Horizontal velocity never changes (ignoring wind resistance)
- Horizontal acceleration always = 0
- Vertical acceleration always = 10 m/s2
- Vertical behavior is always symmetrical (upward = downward)
- Time in the air depends on the vertical component of velocity only.
- Range depends on both the vertical and horizontal components.
- Time is always the same for both the x and y components of the motion.
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Formula for displacement in projectile motion
X = 1/2at2
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Formula for final velocity when only height is given
V = √(2gh)
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Formula for "round trip" or total time in air
tair = 2V/g
V must be the vertical component of initial velocity
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The effect of surface area on air resistance
Greater surface area = more air resistance
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The effect of shape on air resistance
Less aerodynamic = more air resistance
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The effect of contour on air resistance
Rough surface = more air resistance
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The effect of velocity on air resistance
Greater velocity = more air resistance
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Main Idea
The purpose of the passage, the reason for which the author wrote the piece. What the author is "getting at".
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Tone
Requires observation more than inference.
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According to the passage means...
The opinions, attitudes, likes, dislikes, beliefs, and character traits of the author.
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Points in identifying contrasting theories
- 1. Theories hypothesis
- 2. Viewpoints philosophies
- 3. Authorities or critics
- 4. Authors or their works
- 5. Artists or their works
- 6. Historical figures
- 7. Experiments
- 8. Opinions
- 9. Forms of government or institutions
- 10. Objects or subjects
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Inference and logic
Mild and simple jumps from information given to information logically arrived at
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Big picture
Step back and get the larger idea. DON'T consentrate on details!
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Site of lipid synthesis
Endoplasmic reticulum
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Site of lipid metabolism
Mitochondria
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Structure of mitochondrion
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Where DNA is found
Nucleus. DNA cannot leave and is only found here. There is however a small amount found in the mitochondria.
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Nucleolus
Site of rRNA transcription and ribosome assembly.
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Rough ER
Covered with ribosomes; all proteins not bound for the cytosol are made here.
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Smooth ER
Lipid synthesis and modification. NOT LIPID METABOLISM.
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Golgi Apparatus
Cellular "post office;" organize, package, modify, excrete, etc.
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Mitochondria
Have their own DNA with variations to the nuclear genetic code passed through the maternal line only.
Place of lipid metabolism.
Theory suggests they evolved from aerobic prokaryotes in symbiosis with a eukaryotic cell.
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Centrioles/Centrosome
The centrosome is an amorphous area of proteins and nucleating factors within which the centrioles are located. It organizes microtubules, flagella and cilia; it also plays a key role in cell division.
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Lysosome
- pH of 5
- Digests cell parts
- Fuses with phagocytotic vesicles
- Participates in cell death (apoptosis)
- Forms by budding off from the Golgi
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Peroxisome
- Self-replicates
- Detoxifies chemicals
- Participates in lipid metabolism
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Tubulin
A protein that is the main constituent of microtubules.
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Cytoskeleton
Microscopic network of filaments that give shape to cells.
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Spindle Apparatus
Segregates chromosomes during cell division.
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Actin and Myosin
Filaments in muscle that provide movement.
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In humans, cilia are found exclusively in:
- Respiratory System (lungs)
- Nervous System (ependymal cells)
- Reproductive System (fallopian tubes)
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Eukaryotic Flagella
Whipping motion; microtubules made of tubulin.
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Prokaryotic Flagella
Spinning/rotating motion; simple helices made of flagellin.
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Tight Junctions
Water-proof barriers
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Gap Junctions
Tunnels allowing exchange
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Desmosomes
Strongest cellular junction but are not watertight barriers.
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Types of membrane transport
- Diffusion
- Facilitated Diffusion
- Active Transport
- Secondary Active Transport
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Phospholipids
Major component of all cell membranes that form lipid bilayers. Most phospholipids contain a diglyceride.
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Integral Protein
A protein molecule or protein assembly permanently attached in a biological membrane.
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Transport Proteins
Transport substances such as molecules and ions across the membrane, within the cell, or can be involved in vesicular transport.
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Cholesterol
Organic chemical substance classified as a waxy steroid of fat. Essential structural component of mammalian cell membranes and is required to establish proper membrane permeability and fluidity.
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Receptor Proteins
Signal-receiving molecules embedded in the cell wall.
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Exocytosis
The release of cellular substances contained in cell vesicles by fusion of the vesicular membrane with the plasma membrane and release of the contents to the exterior of the cell.
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Endocytosis
Incorporation of substances into a cell by phagocytosis or pinocytosis.
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Pinocytosis
Cell drinking
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Tissue types
- Epithelial
- Nervous
- Connective
- Muscle
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Tissue Organization
Organ systems > Organs > Tissues > Cells
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Communication characteristics of the endocrine system
Slow, general, long-lasting
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Communication characteristics of the nervous system
Fast, specific, short-lived
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Communication characteristics of the paracrine system
Local mediator hormones only
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Diploid number
Having a pair of each type of chromosome, so that the basic chromosome number is doubled. 46 in humans.
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Haploid number
The haploid number is the number of chromosomes in a gamete of an individual. This is distinct from the monoploid number (x), which is the number of unique chromosomes in a single complete set. Gametes (sperm, and ova) are haploid cells.
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Mitosis yields:
Two genetically identical, diploid daughter cells.
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Meiosis yields:
Four genetically distinct, haploid daughter cells.
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Lipid definition
Any biomolecule soluble in non-polar solvents and insoluble in polar solvents.
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Triacylglycerol (triglyceride) structure
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Description of basic steroid structure
All are four-ringed structures.
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Definition of amphipathic
An amphipathic substance is one that is polar at one end of the molecule (hydrophilic) and nonpolar (hydrophobic) at the other.
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Alanine (amino acid) structure
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Arginine (amino acid) structure
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Asparagine (amino acid) structure
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Aspartic acid (amino acid) structure
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Cysteine (amino acid) structure
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Glutamic acid (amino acid) structure
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Glutamine (amino acid) structure
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Glycine (amino acid) structure
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Histidine (amino acid) structure
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Isoleucine (amino acid) structure
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Leucine (amino acid) structure
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Lysine (amino acid) structure
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Methionine (amino acid) structure
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Phenylalanine (amino acid) structure
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Proline (amino acid) structure
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Serine (amino acid) structure
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Threonine (amino acid) structure
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Tryptophan (amino acid) structure
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Tyrosine (amino acid) structure
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Valine (amino acid) structure
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1 mol (at STP) = ? L
22.4 L = 1 mol of gas
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(PV=nRT) What is the value of R?
.0821
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pH equivalents
- 1e-8 = 8pH
- 1e-6 = 6pH
- 1e-11 = 11pH
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Determining ionic character
The compound with the greatest difference in electronegativities between the metal and nonmetal has the most ionic character. Electronegativities tend to decrease down a group of the periodic table.
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Precession definition
Precession is the spin of protons, electrons, and neutrons in an atom. For a nonzero precession in the nucleus of an atom, you have to have an uneven number of nucleons.
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Determining moles of a substance
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Determining number of ions
moles x Avogadro (6.02e23) = # ions
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Litmus paper color changes
- Red Blue in base
- BlueRed in acid
No color change either means it is in the opposite solution, or that the solution is neutral.
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London dispersion forces (Van der Waals)
Weak inter and intramolecular forces between non-polar molecules.
Ex. When The only thing that changes between molecules is their molecular weight, yet a trend developes in boiling points, these forces are responsible.
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A pendulum's frequency depends on...
- Pendulum length.
- Acceleration of gravity.
Changing mass has no effect.
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Current (I) is equal to...
Charge (Coulombs) per unit time (seconds).
Therefore when given current and charge, simply divide current by charge to get frequency of electrons per second.
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Autosome definition
An autosome is a normal chromosome that is not an allosome.
An allosome is also called a sex chromosome. For example, in humans there are typically 22 pairs of autosomes and one allosome pair.
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Nonsense mutation
A mutation causes a premature stop codon and terminates translation.
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Generic definition of a hormone
Chemical messengers that are secreted by endocrine tissues and are transported by the bloodstream, instead of by ducts, to the target tissues where they alter cellular activity.
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Ln of anything less than 1 is...
A negative number
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N/C is equivalent to...
V/m
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Degrees for perfect destructive interference
180˚
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Bacteria and Eukaryotic cells are the same in...
That they both have a form of the electron transport chain.
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ATP Synthase is...
The cyclical "ogger" protein that produces ATP at the end of the electron transport chain.
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A great solvent in O-Chem reactions
Anything ether
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