Cumulative Review.txt

Independent. There is none.

The coefficient of kinetic friction is always lower than that of static friction. Therefore there is a net accelerating force on the block once it starts to slide making speed increase linearly with time.

N₂ has a lower molecular weight than does O_2.

Increases

Sound waves travel more slowly.

Getting closer.

Liquid density and depth

The pH of the salt solution formed.

The mass of an acid that yields one mole of hydrogen ions.

or

The mass of a base that reacts with one mole of hydrogen ions.

The mole fraction is the number of moles of chemical in question divided by the total number of moles for all other species in solution.

mf of A =

Divide the total pressure by number of molecules (including coefficients).

CH₄ + 2O₂ CO₂ + 2H₂O

(maybe products only?)

Figure out number of moles. Number of moles equals subscript unless it can be reduced. (e.g. 2:4:2 = 1:2:1)

Open pipe wavelength is 2 times the length of the pipe.

Pipe diameter doesn't matter.

The number of electrons ejected increases.

Electron energy is based on the energy of the photon.

The square of the current (I) times the resistance (R).

Increases the speed of the ejected electron.

Melting

Produces an image behind its plane at a distance equal to the distance of the object being reflected.

H₃O⁺

Parasympathetic motor fibers

• Amine
• 
• Amide
• 

Stimulates gluconeogenisis and release of glucose into the blood.

Slightly lowers and broadens the temperature range of melting.

They are connected in such a way that contents may move freely between them.

Metabolically inactive

Haploid

• T cells
• B cells
• Other leukocytes

Saponification is hydrolysis of an ester.

Fission

Hypothalamus

Pituitary

Ovary

Hair, nails, skin, and oil and sweat glands.

Thermoregulation, protection, environmental sensory input, excretion, innate immunity, blood reservoir, vitamin D synthesis.

Made of avascular, dead, keratinized cells.

Contains blood vessels, hair follicles, sebaceous glands (oil), sudoriferous glands (sweat), and nerve endings. The dermis is a connective tissue.

Body movement, support and stabilization, generation of heat, and maintenance of homeostasis.

Voluntary, striated, and multinucleated.

The neuromuscular junction between a skeletal muscle and a motor nerve can ONLY USE ACETYLCHOLINE (ACh) AS THE NEUROTRANSMITTER. The action potential spreads along the sarcolemma and down specialized T-tubules that dive deep into the muscle cell, causing the release of Ca²⁺.

• -The default low-energy position for myosin heads is bent. ATP is used to force, or "cock", these myosin heads into a high-energy, straight position.
• -After the "power stroke", ATP binds to the mysoin head again, releasing it from the actin filament.

High

Low

Myosin heads cannot detach from actin and the muscle will remain in a contracted position. (Rigor mortis)

We do not get rigor, but the inability to contract (a.k.a. "flaccidity")

• 1) Number of motor units being used
• 2) Size of the motor units being used
• 3) Frequency of action potentials (i.e. stimulation)

• Skeletal muscles store large amounts of glycogen; they also require a lot of oxygen and thus have their own oxygen storage molecule, myoglobin, which is capable of holding one O₂ molecule.
• Also mature (differentiated) skeletal muscles are frozen in G_o phase and do not divide (similar to neurons)

• Involuntary, striated, one nucleus.
• Unlike skeletal muscles, cardiac cells continue dividing after differentiation.

Does contain sarcomeres and uses the same sliding filament mechanism as skeletal muscle.

Involuntary, non-striated, one nucleus.

Smooth muscle is NOT arranged in sarcomeres. Therefore it does not contain troponin. Uses a calcium cascade mechanism instead.

Support, protection, movement, mineral storage (calcium and phosphate), energy storage (as fat in the marrow), and blood cell formation.

Mature bone cells surrounded by a mineral matrix.

Bone cells that break down and resorb bone matrix, releasing the component minerals (Ca²⁺ and P) back into the blood.

Immature bone cells that secrete collagen, organic compounds, and minerals forming a bone matrix around themselves. Once they are completely enclosed by matrix, they differentiate into osteocytes.

Two epiphyses (bulbous ends) cushioned by cartilage; the ends are filled with spongy bone and the shaft in between is made of compact bone; the center is a hollow cavity filled with yellow bone marrow.

A compound of calcium, phosphate, and hydroxide. It is the mineral matrix responsible for a bone's strength and is the form in which most all of the body's calcium is stored.

• A connective tissue made of collagen.
• No perfusion or innervation
• Found in appendages such as the nose and ears, at the ends of the long bones, between vertebrae, at the rib-sternum (sternocostal) joints, etc.

• 1) Fibrous (skull bones)
• 2) Cartilaginous (ribs and sternum)
• 3) Synovial (knee, elbow, etc.)

Spermatozoa are produced by the testicles in the seminiferous tubules and stored and nurtured in the epididymis. They are a SINGLE, HAPLOID cell consisting of a head (cell body) and tail (flagellum). They contain lots of mitochondria.

Sperm leave the epididymis via the vas deferens. The vas deferens arches back up into the pelvis and then back towards the penis. Along this path seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral gland (a.k.a. Cowper's gland) all secrete various lubricants and nutrients into the ejaculate.

Anterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release stress hormones called "glucocorticoids".

Anterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Surge in LH causes ovulation; stimulates the secretion of the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone.

Anterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates growth of the follicle during menstrual cycle and production of sperm.

Anterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates release of T3/T4 from the thyroid.

Anterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates growth throughout the body.

Anterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates milk production in the breasts.

Posterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Causes the collecting duct of the kidney to become highly permeable to water, concentrating the urine.

Posterior pituitary

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates contractions during childbirth and milk secretion during nursing.

Parathyroid

Peptide and water-soluble

Increases blood calcium by stimulating proliferation of osteoclasts, uptake of Ca²⁺ in the gut, and reabsorption of Ca²⁺ in the kidney.

Pancreas

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates uptake and storage of glucose from the blood.

Pancreas

Peptide and water-soluble

Stimulates gluconeogenisis and release of glucose into the blood.

Thyroid

Peptide and water-soluble

Decreases blood calcium by inhibiting osteoclasts.

Egg/placenta

Peptide and water-soluble

Prevents degeneration of the corpeus luteum, maintaining pregnancy.

Adrenal cortex

Steroid and lipid-soluble

Increases Na⁺ reabsorption and K⁺ secretion at the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct; net increase in salts in the plasma, increasing osmotic potential and subsequently blood pressure.

Adrenal cortex

Steroid and lipid-soluble

A stress hormone; increases gluconeogenesis in the liver and thus blood glucose levels; stimulates fat breakdown.

Gonads/testes

Steroid and lipid-soluble

Stimulates development of secondary sex characteristics and closing of epiphyseal plates.

Gonads/ovaries

Steroid and lipid-soluble

Stimulates female sex organs; causes LH surge in menstruation.

Gonads/ovaries

Steroid and lipid-soluble

Stimulates growth and maintenance of uterus during pregnancy.

Thyroid

Tyrosine derivative and lipid-soluble

Increases basal metabolic rate, affecting metabolism.

Adrenal medulla

Tyrosine derivative and water-soluble

Cause responses almost identical to a sympathetic nervous system response (fight or flight).

ACTH, LH, FSH, TSH, hGH, Prolactin, ADH, Oxytocin, Parathyroid Hormone, Insulin, Glucagon, Calcitonin, hCG

Aldosterone, Cortisol, Testosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone

Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, T3, T4

Endoplasmic reticulum

Mitochondria

• -Respiratory System (lungs)
• -Nervous System (ependymal cells)
• -Reproductive System (fallopian tubes)

Nucleus. DNA cannot leave and is only found here. There is however a small amount found in the mitochondria.

Site of rRNA transcription and ribosome assembly.

Covered with ribosomes; all proteins not bound for the cytosol are made here.

Lipid synthesis and modification. NOT LIPID METABOLISM.

Cellular "post office;" organize, package, modify, excrete, etc.

Have their own DNA with variations to the nuclear genetic code passed through the maternal line only.

Place of lipid metabolism.

Theory suggests they evolved from aerobic prokaryotes in symbiosis with a eukaryotic cell.

• pH of 5
• Digests cell parts
• Fuses with phagocytotic vesicles
• Participates in cell death (apoptosis)
• Forms by budding off from the Golgi

• Self-replicates
• Detoxifies chemicals
• Participates in lipid metabolism

A protein that is the main constituent of microtubules.

Microscopic network of filaments that give shape to cells.

Segregates chromosomes during cell division.

Filaments in muscle that provide movement.

Whipping motion; microtubules made of tubulin.

Spinning/rotating motion; simple helices made of flagellin.

Water-proof barriers

Tunnels allowing exchange

Strongest cellular junction but are not watertight barriers.

• Diffusion
• Facilitated Diffusion
• Active Transport
• Secondary Active Transport

Major component of all cell membranes that form lipid bilayers. Most phospholipids contain a diglyceride.

A protein molecule or protein assembly permanently attached in a biological membrane.

Transport substances such as molecules and ions across the membrane, within the cell, or can be involved in vesicular transport.

Organic chemical substance classified as a waxy steroid of fat. Essential structural component of mammalian cell membranes and is required to establish proper membrane permeability and fluidity.

Signal-receiving molecules embedded in the cell wall.

The release of cellular substances contained in cell vesicles by fusion of the vesicular membrane with the plasma membrane and release of the contents to the exterior of the cell.

Incorporation of substances into a cell by phagocytosis or pinocytosis.

Cell eating

Cell drinking

S_rxn = S(products) - S(reactants)

• Increase in entropy or disorder = +∆S
• Decrease in entropy or increase in order = –∆S

• 1. Depends on number of particles not mass.
• 2. Raises bp and lowers fp (antifreeze)

Volatile components are released.

Energy dissipated by frictional force is equal to the force they are exerting times the distance over which they exert that force.

Coherent light are light waves that are "in phase" with one another.

Light waves are widely divergent or scattered.

The C-1 carbon

Image is in front of the retina.

Divergent lens for correction.

1700 sharp, deep

3300 broad, separate from CH

2800 sharp, deep

3000 broad, overlaps CH

3300 broad, shallow

3300 broad, deep

2250 sharp, deep

SG = D_substance/D_H2O

D = density

• Domain
• Kingdom
• Phylum
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
• Species

• Stain purple (high amount of peptidoglycan retains dye)
• Very thick cell walls
• Form endospores
• Single cell membrane.

• Stain pink (bc the relatively low amount of peptidoglycan)
• Relatively thin cell wall
• Do NOT form endospores
• Contain two cell membranes (inside and outside of the cell wall)

Transformation: take up DNA from surroundings.

Transduction: genes transfered via virus

Conjugation: sex pilus (other bacteria)

Depends on how many are actually bonded to the atom in question.

Just over 7 in a healthy individual.

Goes up with excess O₂ and down with excess CO₂.

• (VC) Vena cavae
• (RA) Right atrium
• (RV) Right ventricle
• (PA) Pulmonary artery
• Lungs
• (PV) Pulmonary vein
• (LA) Left atrium
• (LV) Left ventricle
• (A) Aorta
• Body organs
• Right atrium again

Left ventricular wall is thicker and generates higher pressure upon contraction.

Digestive

Stores bile produced by the liver that digests hydrophobic fats (e.g. triglycerides)

Tissue culture.

Intact cells with all intracellular mechanisms still functioning are needed.

X = 1/2at²

v = √(2gh)

F = Gmm/r²

F = ma

PV = nRT

KE = 1/2mv²

PE = mgh

PE = 1/2kx²

PE = 1/2cv²

• c - capacitance
• v - voltage

F_machine = mg(h/d)

• h - vertical height
• d - length of ramp (hypotenuse)

F_machine = mg(L₁/L₂)

L₁ and L₂ refer to the lever arms for the mass and the applied force, respectively. (What does this sentence mean?)

F_machine = mg/(# of vertical ropes directly lifting the mass)

• F_machine = mg(h₁h₂)
• F_machine = mg(A₁A₂)

• Where h₁ and h₂ refer to the distance traveled by the large plunger and the small plunger, respectively.
• Where A₁ and A₂ refer to the cross-sectional areas of the small plunger and large plunger, respectively.

• P = ∆E/t
• P = W/t
• P = Fdcos/t
• P_{instantaneous} = Fvcos

Units - Watts (J/s)

• frequency - occurences per (time)
• wavelength - crest to crest or trough to trough

C = 2πr

a = gsin

v_final = v_initial(m_initial/m_final)

On a plane:

F_friction = µmg

On a slope:

F_friction = µmgcos

F_B = _fluidv_objectg

Wavelength = speed (c for light) / frequency of beat

A tuft of capillaries situated within a Bowman's capsule at the end of the renal tubule in the kidney that filters waste products from the blood and initiates urine formation.

The structure surrounding the glomerulus.

• Is responsible for the reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, various ions, and water.
• Sodium is actively transported, chloride follows passively by electrical attraction, and water follows the salt out of the proximal tubule.

Is permeable to water.

• Na⁺ is actively transported out and Cl^– follows due to electrical attraction.
• Impermeable to water.

Located next to each glomerulus, it is involved in the secretion of renin and EPO in response to blood pressure changes.

Reabsorbs Na⁺ through coupled secretion of H⁺ or K⁺. Requires the presence of aldosterone. Plays an important role in acid-base balance.

As the collecting ducts pass through the hypertonic renal medulla, water leaves by osmosis and is carried away in surrounding capillaries.

The permeability of the collecting ducts to water is stimulated by antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

Urine is collected and moved into the renal pelvis and ureters.

The funnel-shaped cavity of the kidney into which urine is discharged before passing into the ureter.

The long narrow duct that conveys urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder.

Inulin is filtered but neither reabsorbed nor secreted. Its clearance is thus equal to the glomerular filtration rate.

Renin / Na⁺

Have an increased urine output

Filtered, and reabsorbed, but not secreted.

Increase

GFR would decrease

False

Decreased urine output

Active transport

Proximal convoluted tubule

• Release of hormones
• Maintenance of plasma pH
• Maintenance of plasma [electrolyte]
• Gluconeogenesis

ADH and aldosterone

By activating the renin-angiotensin system. This increases the amount of sodium and water that is reabsorbed by the kidneys, therefore increasing blood volume and pressure.

Higher pressure increased GFR or more filtrate.

Triple, double, single

C-C, C=C, C=C

Triple, double, single.

Formal charge = valence – assigned

Energy is always released when a bond is formed, and required when a bond is broken.

The less stable the bond, the greater will be the heat of combustion. The more stable the bond, the lower the heat of combustion.

To determine aromaticity,

4n + 2 pi

Remove spectator ions

∆G = ∆G_f(products) – ∆G_f(reactants)

with coefficients as the exponents.

22.4L at STP

Virtually all gasses can be considered ideal at common temps and pressures.

Electronegativity

Covalent

Solid

Ionic

Gravity

• 
• Sublimation - Solid to gas

• Red Blue in base
• Blue Red in acid

No color change either means it is in the opposite solution, or that the solution is neutral.

AB+CD → AD+CB

The lower the value of K_sp is, the lower the concentrations of the cation and anion in an aqueous solution and the lower the solubility of the compound in water.

Speed

P = CO x VR

• p - blood pressure
• CO - cardiac output
• VR - vascular resistance

most stable, largest, equatorial.

A site on a multi-subunit enzyme that is not the substrate binding site (not the active site) but that when reversibly bound by an effector induces a conformational change in the enzyme, altering its catalytic properties.

Three equivalents, because one OH^– ion is required to hydrolyze one ester linkage of a triacylglycerol molecule.

Several proteolytic enzymes, which are released into the small intestine and converted to their active forms of trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase.

Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria.

Mesoderm

Either on a sex chromosome (X, Y) or on an autosome.

Phagocytosis.

Phagocytosis requires that the cell change shape dramatically as is surrounds and engulfs large extracellular particles. This function relies on the microtubules to disassemble and reorganize. Inhibiting microtubule reorganization would therefore prevent phagocytosis.

2ⁿ

Where n is the haploid number of chromosomes.Ex. AaBbCc has 3 haploid chromosomes and so 2³ is 8

The splitting of centromeres.One difference between these two mechanisms is during respective anaphases. During anaphase in mitosis, sister chromatids are pulled apart. During anaphase of meiosis I, homologous pairs are separated into two daughter cells. It is not until anaphase II in meiosis that the centromere is split.

Nucleus

Cytoplasm.

This is done by ribosomes.

0

.5

.7

.9

1

1

.9

.7

.5

0

Multiply the top and bottom of the primary fraction, by the reciprocal of the fraction in the denominator. This will make the top a new fraction and the bottom one.

• Ex.
• 

Increased by 1/3

Whether or not a process or reaction can occur.

How fast or slow a process or rection can occur.

Fluid movement caused by the hotter portions of a fluid rising and the cooler portions of a fluid sinking.

• Electromagnetic waves emitted from a hot body into the surrounding environment.
• Light colors radiate and absorb less
• Dark colors radiate and absorb more
• Black Body Radiator - perfect theoretical radiator

• Molecular collisions along a conduit
• Analogous to current flow through a wire or H₂O through a pipe

The amount of energy (in Joules or Calories) a system can absorb per temperature unit (J/K or cal/˚C).

C = q/∆T

Is for a given substance only and is defined as the heat capacity per unit mass.

q = mc∆T

• 1.0 cal/g˚C
• or
• 4.18 J/g˚C

• ∆E = q + w
• Work done on the system (+)
• Work done by the system (–)

• Heat cannot be changed completely into work in a cyclical process
• Entropy in an isolated system can never decrease

Pure substances at absolute zero have an entropy of zero

Temperature exists

• 0˚ C = 273.15 K
• -273.15˚ C = 0 K
• Absolute zero = 0 K

• KE = 3/2kT
• k = Boltzman's constant (1.3806503 e ^–23 m2 kg s-2 K-1)

• (∆H)
• The energy contained within chemical bonds or HEAT

• (∆S)
• A measure of the randomness or disorder in a system

• Standard State is 25˚ C (298K) and ∆H = 0
• *For thermodynamics problems

• STP (standard temperature and pressure) is 0˚ Celsius (273K) and 1 atm
• *For gas problems

Increased randomness, energy released and available to do work

Decreased randomness, energy is required to "create" increased order and that energy is thus unavailable to do work

• 1. Increased number of items/particles/etc. (Gas trumps # of moles or particles. This means that if two moles of reactants makes one mole of product and that product is a gas, it is still +∆S)
• 2. Increased volume
• 3. Increased temperature
• 4. Increased disorder
• 5. Decreased pressure (the higher the pressure the more packing and order of molecules)

∆G = the amount of "free" or "useful" energy available to do work.

• -∆G = Spontaneous; exothermic
• +∆G = Non-spontaneous; endothermic

• 0 order: [A] vs. time is linear with slope -k
• 1st order: ln[A] vs. time is linear with slope -k
• 2nd order: 1/[A] vs. time is linear with slope k
• 3rd order: 1/2[A]2 vs. time is linear with slope k

∆G = ∆H - T∆S

• ∆G - Gibbs
• ∆H - Enthalpy
• ∆S - Entropy
• T - Temp K

• (+) means more disorder or increased entropy.
• (–) means more order or decreased entropy.

• Option 1: Aqueous (polar)
• Option 2: Organic (non-polar)

Both will have an extraction solvent with an opposite polarity added to their mixture.

The reaction mixture will only work with an oppositely charged extraction solvent if the product is more soluble n the extraction solvent than it is in its current solvent.

This can be remedied by protonating or deprotonating the product, resulting in a charge.

When an aqueous solvent is mixed with almost any non-polar organic solvent the water will be the bottom layer. This is unless the organic solvent is more dense than water, which means density will be given in the q-stem.

Protonates any base

Protonates strong bases only

Deprotonates strong acids only

Deprotonates any acid

Physical separation of a solid through filtration paper.

Mixture containing the desired product is cooled very slowly, because pure substances crystallize.

The first substance "out" will be the LEAST polar.

Distance traveled by component / Distance traveled by solvent

Inversely proportional to one another. R_f values range between 0-1. 0.9 would be non-polar and .1 would be extremely polar.

The mixture to be separated is passed through a column packed with charged glass beads or another polar matrix. The targeted material is stuck in the beads and the rest passes through.

Mixture is dissolved in an inert substance and heated to form a gas. It passes through a tube of something polar or non polar depending on the desired product. The gasses will separate according to their retention to the substance and the substances will exit at different times.

1700 sharp, deep

3300 broad, separate from CH

2800 sharp, deep

3000 broad, overlaps CH

3300 broad, shallow

3300 broad, deep

2250 sharp, deep

An atom must have either an odd atomic number or an odd mass number to register on an NMR (or an MRI; for the MCAT, think of MRIs as a large-scale NMR of the human body).

• e^- bombardment of a molecule to:
• 1. Break apart into smaller pieces
• 2. To ionize

Represents the original molecule missing one electron.

Is the most common fragment and equals 100% relative abundance.

The height of each peak gives the relative abundance of each individual fragment with a unique m/z.

n + 1 sub-peaks, where n is the number of non-equivalent hydrogen neighbors.

• Sigma only show little to none
• Double and triple bonds absorb strongly
• Conjugated systems absorb UV even more strongly than do isolated double or triple bonds

*The greater the degree of conjugation, the farther to the right (longer wavelength in nm) the species will absorb.

Receives protons and is electron dense.

Nu^– attack carbon or other central atoms like nitrogen.

E⁺ are electron poor species with a full or partial positive charge.

2

First order

Yes

Yes

Planar

Weak bases; 3˚ carbons only; polar protic solvents

2

First order

Yes

Yes

Racemic mixture

Poor nucleophiles; 3˚ carbons only; polar protic solvents

1

Second order

No

No

Planar

Strong bases

1

Second order

No

No

Inversion of relative configuration

Good nucleophiles; methyl, 1˚ or 2˚ carbons

• Insoluble in water
• Very low density
• Non-polar
• Most are oils/gases

• Bp increases with increasing chain length and molecular weight.
• Branching signifcantly lowers bp.
• Mp increases with increasing chain length and molecular weight.
• Mp decreases with branching.

A violent, radical, chain reaction with oxygen, requiring a very high energy of activation.

Ex: CH₄ + 2O₂ -> CO₂ + H₂O + Heat

Alkanes react with Flourine, Chlorine or Bromine (Not Iodine) in the presence of heat or ligh via a radical chain reaction.

*The major product-forming step is propogation, NOT termination.

Tertiary > Secondary > Primary

• Reactivity: F > Cl > Br
• Selectivity: Br > Cl > F

The most substituted carbon

Reduce an alkene with H₂ in the presence of a metal catalyst. This is syn addition.

• Nucleophiles
• Slightly more polar than alkanes, less dense than water, only slightly soluble.
• More acidic than alkanes, but still unlikely to give up a hydrogen.
• Like alkanes, bp andmp increase with mw and decrease with branching.

Tetrasubstituted > trisubstituted > disubstituted > monosubstituted > unsubstituted

*R-groups inrease alkene stability

• Slightly more polar than alkanes, less dense than water, only slightly soluble.
• More acidic than alkanes, but still unlikely to give up a hydrogen.
• Like alkanes, bp and mp increase with mw and decrease with branching.

• Boiling point goes up with increasing mw and down with increased branching.
• Melting point goes up with increasing mw.

Alcohols have high bp and mp due to h-bonding.

Alcohols are less acidic than water.

Alcohols increase in acidity from tertiary to primary.

• Arrhenius: Acids produce [H⁺] ions in solution and bases produce [OH^–] ions in solution
• Bronstead-Lowry: Acids donate protons [H⁺]; bases accept protons [H⁺].
• Lewis: Acids accept a pair of electrons; bases donate a pair of electrons.

Amphoteric substances can act as either an acid or a base. (e.g. H₂O)

• pH = –log[H⁺]
• pOH = –log[OH^–]
• pH + pOH = 14

• HI
• HBr
• HCl
• HNO₃
• HClO₄
• HClO₃
• H₂SO₄

Polyprotic acids: acids with more than one acidic proton like sulfuric acid. The second proton is always significantly less acidic.

• Group IA hydroxides (NaOH, KOH, etc.)
• NH₂^–
• H^–
• Ca(OH)₂
• Na₂O
• CaO

Higher in energy than bonding orbitals; contains electrons "out of phase" that are said to be "repulsive".

Lower in energy than anti-bonding orbitals; contain electrons that are "in phase" that are said to be "attractive".

Covalent compounds that dissociate 100% in water (strong acids and strong bases) and ionic compounds are always good electrolytes.

The condosity of a solution is defined as the molar concentration of sodium chloride that has the same specific electrical conductance as the solution.

(ex. 3M LiCl has a condosity of less than 3M because Na has more metallic character than Li so a lower concentration of Na Cl would be sufficient to conduct electricity just as well)

The energy stored in a bond. This is the amoung of energy that will be required to break the bond. Therefore, stable compounds have the highest bond energies, and unstable compounds have low bond energies.

According to the MCAT this is also known as "bond dissociation energy".

The higher the energy of the molecule (i.e. less stable) the higher the heat of combustion.

The empirical formula is the simplest formula for a compound. A molecular formula is the same as or a multiple of the empirical formula, and is based on the actual number of atoms of each type in the compound. For example, if the empirical formula of a compound is C3H8 , its molecular formula may be C3H8 , C6H16 , etc.

The percent mass of one element in the formula/total mass of all elements in the formula.

• 1) Change the percent for each species into grams.
• 2) Convert the grams of each species into moles by dividing by molar mass.
• 3) Look at the element with the lowest number of moles. Calculate approximately how many times it will divide into each of the other molar amounts for each of the other elements -- this number is the subscript for each element in the empirical formula. If the subscripts are not at there lowest common denominator, reduce to get the empirical formula.

AN EMPIRICAL FORMULA IS ALL YOU CAN GET FROM PERCENT MASS ALONE. TO GET THE MOLECULAR FORMULA, YOU MUST BE GIVEN THE MW OF THE UNKOWN COMPOUND. Then simply divide that MW by the MW of the empirical formula. You should get a whole number. Multiply each subscript by that number to get the molecular formula.

A+BAB

ABA + B

AB + CAC + B

AB + CDAC + BD

Name the cation first, then the anion (e.g., CaSo₄ is Calcium Sulfate)

When written in words, compounds including transition elements must have a roman numeral showing the oxidation state of the metal (i.e., Iron(II)Sulfate vs. Iron(III)sulfate).

Named by replacing the last syllable with "ide" (i.e., Sulfide, Hydride, Chloride, etc.)

"ate" becomes "ic" (Sulfuric/Nitric acid)"ite" becomes "ous" (Nitrous acid)"ide" becomes "hydro/ic" (hydroiodic/hydroflouric acid)

• 1) Balance Carbons
• 2) Balance Hydrogens
• 3) Balance oxygens
• 4) Balance others
• 5) Finally, multiply all species by the number in the denominator of any fraction to remove the fractions

• 1) Convert to moles
• 2) Balance the equations
• 3) compare the number of moles you have to the number of moles required to run one cycle of the reaction.

The reactant you run out of first is the limiting reagent. This may not always be the reactant you have the least of (grams or moles).

Add 1 point for each carbon there is and subtract 1/2 for each oxygen there is in the compound...the compound with the highest point value requires the greatest number of oxygens

Theoretical Yield: products formed when all the limiting reagent is used.

Actual Yield: product obtained from reaction - always less then theoretical yield.

Percent Yield: actual/theoretical X 100%

• K_eq = [products]^x / [reactants]^y
• Keq is written with every term raised to an exponent equal to its coefficient in the balanced equation (remember, however, that you do NOT do this when writing rate laws). Pure liquids (l) and pure solids (s) are never included!

The equilibrium constant can ONLY by calculated at equilibrium. IF you make the exact same calculation using concentration values taken at any point other than equilibrium the result is called the REACTION QUOTIENT, Q.

• If Q > K, run will proceed to the left
• If Q < K, run will proceed to the right.

Increases it which shifts the equilibrium to the left making more reactants.

Right shift

Left shift

Shift to side with the less gas molecules

Shift toward side that heat species is not on.

Highest electronegativity and smallest radius.

One atom provides both electrons to the bond and the other has an empty valence shell.

Almost always includes a transition metal.

NH₃ is very very commonly used.

Solids at room temp.

1 mL

Gamma ray emission.

Ration of products over reactants raised to their coefficients in the balanced equation.

Strong acids dissociate 100% and therefore are all product over almost no reactant.

Cations

Anions

Smaller

Larger

Very large atoms with loosely held electrons...Form cations, are lustrous, ductile, malleable, and excellent conductors of both heat and electricity...they are usually only involved in ionic bonds.

Smaller atoms with loosely held electrons...Form anions, have much lower melting points than metals, and with very few exceptions, only nonmetals form covalent bonds.

Larger atoms are better at stabilizing charges, form weaker pi bonds, and have d orbitals where they can "stash" extra electrons.

Group 1, 1 electron in outer level, very reactive, soft, silver, shiny, low density; Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Cesium, Francium

Metallic elements in group 2 of the periodic table which are harder than the alkali metals and are also less reactive.

The first of the two rows below the main part of periodic table. usually used in alloys, soft, malleable, shiny and good electrical conductors.

In the 2nd row of transition metals, radioactive, unstable, do not occur in nature.

• The amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule to form a negative ion.
• X + e− → X−

It increases from left to right and from bottom to top

The ability of an atom to attract electrons when the atom is in a compound.



It increases from left to right and from bottom to top

The energy required to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole of gaseous atoms or ions. Large atoms or molecules have a low ionization energy, while small molecules tend to have higher ionization energies.



It increases from left to right and from bottom to top

Atomic radius gets larger from right to left and top to bottom.

Increases from right to left and top to bottom

BIG and low low ionization energy

"n" (the principle quantum number)

Gives the Shell (i.e., Valence electrons are in the outermost "shell") and is approximately equal to the relative energy of electrons in that shell.

"" (the azimuthal quantum number)

• Gives the subshell: has values of 0,1,2,3 and from this were know the shape:
• 0=S ; 1=P ; 2=d ; 3=f

"m" (the magnetic quantum number)"the magnetic quantum number"

Gives the orbital; has a value of - to (from the azimuthal quantum number)

The orbital is the portion of the subshell where an electron is most likely to be found (i.e., which "dumbbell" of a p subshell)

"m_s" (the electron spin quantum number)

Gives the spin which is either +1/2 or -1/2 (Positive is up arrow or negative is down arrow)

States a fundamental limit on the accuracy with which certain pairs of physical properties of a particle, such as position and momentum, can be simultaneously known.

The more precisely one property is measured, the less precisely the other can be controlled, determined, or known. You can know it's momentum, or where it's at, but you can't know both at the same time.

No two electrons in a single atom can have the same four quantum numbers; if n, , and m are the same, ms must be different such that the electrons have opposite spins, and so on.

If you bombard certain metals with energy, you can cause the ejection of an electron from their outermost shell (i.e., valence electron). The amount of energy required to do this is called the "work functions."

This is not the same as the Ionization energy because that refers to only lone atoms in a gaseous state. The work function refers to the valence electrons being ejected from the surface of a metal.

KE = E –

• - work function variable
• KE - of the ejected electron
• E - amount of energy added

-or-

E = hf

• E - energy of a photon
• h - Planck's constant
• f - frequency

A He nucleus (2 neutrons and 2 protons) are ejected

Neutron is changed into a proton (with the ejection of an electron)

A proton is changed into a neutron via capture of an electrion

A proton is changed into a neutron (with expulsion of a positron)

Mass of one element divided by the total mass.

• 1. Change the percent for each species into grams
• 2. Convert the grams of each species into moles by dividing by molar mass.
• 3. Look at the element with the lowest number of moles. Calculate approximately how many times it will divide into each of the other molar amounts for each of the other elements--this number is the subscript for each element in the empirical formula. If the subscripts are not at their lowest common denominator, reduce to get the empirical formula.

m = V * P

mass (g) = volume (cm3 or mL) * density (g/cm3)

Then divide mass by molecular weight to get moles.

Occurs when the individual has the allele but is not expressed in the phenotype.

Two of the same gene and both are dominant and both are expressed.

ex- Blood type...IaIb gives you AB blood, IaIo gives you type A, IbIo gives you type B, and IoIo gives you type O...spotted horses and cows..in parts of the animal's skin one allele is expressed to give one color and in other areas the other allele is expressed to give the other color

One allele is not completely dominant over the other, thus you get a mixed phenotype.

When there is any deviation from Mendelian ratios.

The complete set of unique alleles in a population...small gene pool= not a lot of genetic diversity and large gene pool= lots of diversity.

Any change to the heritable characteristics (DNA) of a species across several generations or over time.

A completely unique phenotypic trait that is expressed in different members of the same species...ex- black man vs a white woman.

The way an animal lives.

Fundamental niche - an organism in a particular environment could grow any way it wanted and feed off whatever it felt like if there was no competition.

Realized niche - Because all species do live in competitive environments and do have more superior competitors competing with them for resources a species may have to adapt to a particular niche (way of life) to which it is most highly adapted.

Non-random process by which certain alleles (traits) become either more or less common in a population due to the effects of those traits on the fitness of the individual with emphasis on those alleles that contribute to reproductive success in particular. It is a mechanism of evolution but is not evolution itself.

When one species in different environments evolves into two different species.

Same species with different adaptations.

Ex. Galapogos Island finches.

Some random event kills off a large portion of a population indiscriminately...the most fit individuals do NOT necessarily survive...these events INCREASE genetic drift bc with a much smaller gene pool random matings and assortment of gametes will have a much larger outcome on the gene pool of the population.

The random fluctuations in the allele frequencies in a population.

The population size that the local environment can support.

Rapid growth, numerous offspring, offspring mature rapidly and don't require a lot, if any, post-natal care. dies quickly. predominates in unstable/unpredictable environments. usually have small body size. i.e. bacteria.

Pop size is close to carrying capacity. roughtly constant pop size. low reproduction rate, offspring large and require more post-natal care. Predominates in stable/predictable enviroments. i.e. humans.

• 1) Large population
• 2) No mutation
• 3) No immigration or emigration
• 4) Random mating
• 5) No natural selection

• p² + 2pq + q² = 1
• p + q = 1

• p - dominant allele frequency in a population
• q - recessive allele frequency in a population
• p² - percentage of individuals with homozygous dominant genotype
• 2pq - percentage of individuals with heterozygous genotype

(Domain), Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Eukarya, Animalia, Chordata (vertebrae and skull), Mammalia, Primates, Hominidae, Homo, Sapiens

The "living together of unlike organisms".

Any relationship between members of different species in which each member derives a benefit from the relationship.

A relationship in which one individual benefits and the other individual is not significantly harmed OR helped.

One member of the relationship benefits while the other is harmed.

A small infectious agent that can ONLY replicate inside the cells of another living organism.

The virus is dormant inside the cell of another organism...means that it is there and capable of functioning but it has not started to divide and replicate.

A measure of how likely an infection (via the virus) is to occur and how severe the symptoms are in the organism it infects after infection.

Optimally virulent..if the parasite/virus infects the host and causes symptoms so severe that the host dies before the virus has time to infect another host then the virus dies and thus its genetic material is less fit...this is just as bad for the virus as a virus with a low virulence that has a hard time infecting hosts.

The viral genome that is integrated into the host's DNA.

Retroviruses have RNA as their genetic material so they have a reverse transcriptase that converts their RNA into DNA which can then be inserted into the host's genome transcribed by the host cell's transcription machinery to replicate the virus.

RNA virus that uses reverse transcriptase to turn its RNA into DNA.

• Stain purple (high amount of peptidoglycan retains dye)
• Very thick cell walls
• Form endospores
• Single cell membrane

• Stain pink (bc the relatively low amount of peptidoglycan)
• Relatively thin cell wall
• Do NOT form endospores
• Contain two cell membranes (inside and outside of the cell wall)

ALL bacteria are prokaryotes...they all have at least one cell membrane, a cell wall, and secrete some sort of capsule...they don't have any complex membrane-bound organelles...they have a single circular DNA chromosome and several small circular DNA molecules called plasmids.

• Bacilli - rod-shaped
• Cocci - round-shaped
• Spirilla - spiral-shaped

The building of a sex pilus between two bacteria cells. The donor cell has to be F+ while the recepient must be F- (lacking F plasmid).

Pick up DNA from environment

Viruses accidentally incorporate host genetic material into their nucleic acids.

Prokaryotes: bacteria only , cell wall present, no nucleus but nucleoid, no membrane bound organelle, unicellular, smaller ribosomes

Eukaryotes: protists, fungi, plants, animals, cell wall only in fungi and plants, contains a nucleus and membrane bound organelle, smaller ribosomes.

Mitosis occurs in eukaryotes and involves spindle fibers; does not allow for exponential growth. Binary fission occurs only in prokaryotes; no spindle fibers; allows for exponential growth.

Both result in daughter cells that recieve full copies of parental chromosome. However, with binary fission, daughter cells may get unequal distribution of plasmids.

Chemotrophs gain their energy via the oxidation of chemical compounds that they get from their env't...Phototrophs get their energy by harnessing the energy of photons (light).

• Autotrophs - the organism can rely on CO2 as a carbon source.
• Heterotrophs - must consume organic materials for their carbon.

Because the enzymes that copy the DNA cannot proceed to the very end of the strand. Telomeres, long repeating sections of DNA that do not contain genes, protect the chromosome from degradation. The telomeres are shortened after each replication instead of losing important gene-bearing sections of the strand.

Bacteria that can convert N2 in the atmosphere into NH3 and NH₃ into NO₃^–

• 1) Chemoheterotrophic (they do NOT have chloroplasts)...all fungi are saprophytic (they live off dead organisms)
• 2) They digest their food BEFORE they ingest it
• 3) Fungi have cell walls made of CHITIN (as opposed to the cellulose that make up cell walls of plants)

• Fungi spend most of their life as haploid (this is their growth phase which is also called hyphae - haploid.
• Yeasts primarily reproduce by a process called budding which is basically the same as binary fission except that it is an unequal division (one of the new cells is much larger than the other).
• Most fungi can reproduce sexually and asexually

When life is hard due to stress, bad environment, little food, etc fungi reproduce sexually because this increases the chances of new phenotypic traits that will be more favorable due to increased genetic variability. However, when life is good fungi reproduce asexually.

Any species required by an enzyme to function.

• Binds at the active site
• Overcome by increasing substrate

• Binds away from the active site and changes the enzyme's shape
• Decreases efficiency

Binds covalently to the enzyme and permanently disables it

When the product of an enzymatic reaction series returns to activate the enzyme again; occurs less often than negative feedback.

Childbirth

A shutdown mechanism for a series of enzymatic reactions; when a series produces a sufficient amount of product it sends a signal back to stop it.

Blood glucose regulation

Inactive enzyme precursor. Keeps the enzyme inactive until it has finished folding/being transported to the right place

Regulation away from the active site. Feedback inhibitors do not resemble substrate of enzyme being inhibited, they bind and cause a conformational change. There are both allosteric inhibitors and activators.

Transfers PO₄³�?� to a substrate - phosphorylates others

Removes PO₄³�?� from a substrate - dephosphorylates others

The sum of all chemical reactions in the body.

The breakdown of macromolecules into smaller species to harvest energy.

An organism that can live in either an aerobic or an anaerobic environment (some types of bacteria; yeasts; individual human cells).

Organism that REQUIRES oxygen to grow (humans)

An organism that MUST live in an anaerobic environment.

Formation of ATP from direct transfer of a phosphate group from a phosphorylated intermediate onto ADP.

Oxidation energy is used to create a concentration gradient and use the stored energy from the concentration gradient to create ATP...although oxidation is coupled to phosphorylation in glycolysis, this is NOT an example of oxidative phosphorylation.

Sole route for many bacteria...used by animals ONLY during oxygen debt.

Ethanol is produced and is the final electron acceptor.

Lactate is produced and is the final electron acceptor.

Occurs in the Mitochondria; and to a limited degree in the peroxisomes.

Super long fatty acids are broken into smaller lipids in peroxisomes and these pieces are sent back to the mitochondria where they undergo ß-oxidation.

Fatty acid continues to cycle through beta oxidation getting 2 carbons shorter each time until fatty acid is totaly gone.

Amino acids are broken down into acetyl CoA and fed into the Kreb's cycle.

Healthy individuals burn carbohydrates first, then fats, then proteins.

Replication occurs on both the leading strand and the lagging strand at the same time.

Each strand of the original DNA becomes the template strand for the new DNA strand.

Leading Strand is replicated continuously whereas the lagging strand is replicated in segments called Okazaki fragments.

Reads the template strand 3'->5' but synthesizes the NEW strand 5'->3' (new nucleotides are added on to the 3' end of the sugar preceding it).

Starts at the origin of replication...it opens up into a replication bubble...replication is occurring in 4 separate areas inside this bubble at the same time! Why?...DNA polymerase III requires an RNA primer to be already annealed to the DNA strand in order to begin synthesizing...helicase goes in front of DNA polymerase III and unwinds the DNA to allow room for replication...DNA polymerase I has 5' -> 3' exonuclease activity so it comes in at the end and plows off all the primers (plus maybe a few more nucleotides) and replaces them with DNA nucleotides...and then ligase comes in a binds the okazaki fragments together...throughout this whole process, the strain on DNA caused by the unwinding DNA is released by topoisomerases and gyrases.

Has its own RNA template that it uses to do reverse transcriptase and create DNA nucleotides to add on to the end of a DNA polymer to protect it from degradation.

• RNA has a 2' hydroxyl group and DNA doesn't
• RNA is usually single-stranded and DNA is usually double-stranded
• Uracil (RNA) vs. Thymine (DNA)
• RNA exists in 3 forms vs. DNA which is in 1 form
• RNA exits the nucleus but DNA does not

• 1. RNA polymerase attaches to the promotor region of the DNA template strand.
• 2. DNA is unwound to form a replication bubble. 3. RNA polymerase starts synthesizing the pre-mRNA via RNA complementary base pairing.
• 3. The replication bubble continues down the DNA with the DNA behind it binding back together.
• 4. Once the RNA polymerase gets to the termination sequence, it releases from the template strand as well as the pre-mRNA.
• 5. Splicesome splices out introns in pre-MRA.
• 6. Poly-A-tail attached to 3' end.
• 7. 5' cap added. 8. mRNA is finally ready to be shipped out of the nucleus.

• Anti-sense strand
• Anti-coding strand
• Template strand

• Coding Strand
• Sense Strand
• these are EXACTLY the same as the RNA strand but with thymine instead of Uracil.
• Watch out for the 5'3' convention of writing RNA!

1) Rate of transcription-> RNA has a short half-life so genes must be constantly transcribed in order to continue protein production

2) Activators and Repressors-> certain substances upregulate transciption and others downregulate it...(Classify the following as activators or repressors for the Lac operon...lactose, glucose, Lac I protein, cAMP, CAP)

3) Permanent or Semi-permanent Repression-> methylation or other covalent modification that prevents transcription (When a promoter region of DNA is methylated it often silences the genes)

1) Degenerative= more than one codon for a single amino acid (the 3' nucleotide in the codon and the 5' nucleotide in the anticodon do NOT always need to match perfectly...wobble base pairs)

2) Unambiguous= there is never more than one amino acid coded for by a particular codon

• Start: AUG (methionine)
• Stop: UAA, UAG, UGA

Codons are the 3-nucleotide segments on the mRNA strand (they are read in the 5'->3' direction)...anti-codons are the 3-nucleotide segments that are on the complementary tRNA that brings in the appropriate nucleotide (they are also read in the 5'->3' direction but remember that they are complementary and pair up with codons in the anti-parallel direction).

Ribosome binds upstream of the initial codon and reads the mRNA strand in the 5'->3' direction(the region btwn the ribosome binding site and the intial codon is called the 5' UTR)...when it reaches the Start codon it begins bringing in tRNA's with the appropriate amino acids and catalyzes the polymerization of a polypeptide.

Cytoplasm

(mRNA protein)

Germ cells produce gametes (meiosis) whereas Somatic cells produce normal cells (mitosis) throughout the body.

Germ (sex) cells much worse because they can be transmitted to offspring while somatic (body) cells don't get transmitted.

• 1) Point= a single nucleotide is changed
• 2) Missense mutation= a single nucleotide is changed that causes a new codon in the mRNA strand that codes for a different amino acid
• 3) Nonsense mutation= a single nucleotide is changed that causes a premature stop codon
• 4) Neutral Mutation= the mutation has NO effect on the individual's fitness (the amino acid might still be the same or it might be different but still have none to very little effect on protein function and structure and thus little effect on the organism's fitness)
• 5) Silent mutation= a mutation that has NO effect on the amino acids of the protein...it might be a mutation that creates a new codon that codes for the same protein or it might be a mutation in an intron
• 6) Frameshift mutation= an insertion or deletion causes a shift in the reading frame so that everything after it is new or distorted codons

Spread of diseased cells from one area of the body to another.

Proto-oncogenes are genes that help regulate cell growth.

A gene that has been mutated so that its products, in one way or another, cause cancer

Homozygous for a given trait (may be either dominant or recessive).

• P1 = you
• F1 = your kids
• F2 = your grandkids

Alternate forms of the same gene.

Both cause mutations but carcinogens always cause cancer while mutagens may be benign. All carcinogens are mutagens but not all mutagens are carcinogens.

Alleles segregate independently of one another when forming gametes.

Homologous pairs divide (1 to each gamete) during meiosis.

Genes located on different chromosomes assort independently.

When homologous pairs line up on the metaphase plate they arrange themselves in a random fashion.

Whenever the genotype of an individual is not stated you should assume that it is HOMOZYGOUS DOMINANT!!!!...if the individual is a carrier or is affected (homozygous recessive usually) they will tell you.

The number of individuals in the population carrying the allele who actually express the phenotype.

The varying expression of disease symptoms despite identical genotypes.

A characteristic/trait for which the phenotype depends on many genes to help dictate it.

A single allele that affects many traits.

When cells within the same person have different genetic make-up.

When expression of a gene depends on the parent of origin. Sometimes both copies of a gene are not expressed and the "active" gene is dependent on who the gene came from.

• Epithelial
• Nervous
• Connective
• Muscle

Organ systems > Organs > Tissues > Cells

Slow, general, long-lasting

Fast, specific, short-lived

Local mediator hormones only

Having a pair of each type of chromosome, so that the basic chromosome number is doubled. 46 in humans.

The haploid number is the number of chromosomes in a gamete of an individual. This is distinct from the monoploid number (x), which is the number of unique chromosomes in a single complete set. Gametes (sperm, and ova) are haploid cells.

Two genetically identical, diploid daughter cells.

Four genetically distinct, haploid daughter cells.

Any biomolecule soluble in non-polar solvents and insoluble in polar solvents.

All are four-ringed structures.

An amphipathic substance is one that is polar at one end of the molecule (hydrophilic) and nonpolar (hydrophobic) at the other.

Essential means that your body cannot synthesize it and therefor must get it from its environment- sun, food, etc.

• Disulfide bonds (covalent)
• Ionic bonds (salt bridge)
• Hydrophobic interactions
• Hydroden bonding
• Proline turns
• Van der Waals' forces

1˚ structure (amino acid sequence)

• Acid- electrostatic bonds
• Heat- all forces
• Urea- hydrogen bonds
• Mercaptoethanol- disulfide bonds

To refold simply remove the denaturing agent

Between the CO group of an AA and the NH group of the AA four (4) residues ahead of it; the helix is right-handed.

• α - animals
• β - bacteria

• 1) Nitrogenous Base
• 2) 5-C sugar
• 3) Phosphate Group

Hydroxyl group always at 3' carbon. base at 1' carbon. phosphate at 5' carbon.

NADH, ATP, DNA, RNA, etc.

Organic compoundmade in plants and animals vulnerable to heat.

• Riboflavin
• Thiamine
• Cobalamin

• Inorganic compounds (often metals).
• Found in soil and water not vulnerable to heat.

• -ase = enzyme
• -tase = ATP-requiring enzyme

• Water-soluble
• Fat-soluble

Theory of enzyme specificity. substrate plays role in final shape of enzyme and that enzyme is partially flexible.

Only the correct key will activate the lock. very specific.

Non-protein species NOT permanently attached to the enzyme but required by the enzyme to function.

Non-protein species permanently attached to the enzyme and required by the enzyme to function.

Replication occurs on both the leading strand and the lagging strand at the same time.

Each strand of the original DNA becomes the template strand for the new DNA strand.

Leading Strand is replicated continuously whereas the lagging strand is replicated in segments called Okazaki fragments.

Reads the template strand 3'->5' but synthesizes the NEW strand 5'->3' (new nucleotides are added on to the 3' end of the sugar preceding it).

Starts at the origin of replication...it opens up into a replication bubble...replication is occurring in 4 separate areas inside this bubble at the same time! Why?...DNA polymerase III requires an RNA primer to be already annealed to the DNA strand in order to begin synthesizing...helicase goes in front of DNA polymerase III and unwinds the DNA to allow room for replication...DNA polymerase I has 5' -> 3' exonuclease activity so it comes in at the end and plows off all the primers (plus maybe a few more nucleotides) and replaces them with DNA nucleotides...and then ligase comes in a binds the okazaki fragments together...throughout this whole process, the strain on DNA caused by the unwinding DNA is released by topoisomerases and gyrases.

Has its own RNA template that it uses to do reverse transcriptase and create DNA nucleotides to add on to the end of a DNA polymer to protect it from degradation.

• RNA has a 2' hydroxyl group and DNA doesn't
• RNA is usually single-stranded and DNA is usually double-stranded
• Uracil (RNA) vs. Thymine (DNA)
• RNA exists in 3 forms vs. DNA which is in 1 form
• RNA exits the nucleus but DNA does not

• 1. RNA polymerase attaches to the promotor region of the DNA template strand.
• 2. DNA is unwound to form a replication bubble. 3. RNA polymerase starts synthesizing the pre-mRNA via RNA complementary base pairing.
• 3. The replication bubble continues down the DNA with the DNA behind it binding back together.
• 4. Once the RNA polymerase gets to the termination sequence, it releases from the template strand as well as the pre-mRNA.
• 5. Splicesome splices out introns in pre-MRA.
• 6. Poly-A-tail attached to 3' end.
• 7. 5' cap added. 8. mRNA is finally ready to be shipped out of the nucleus.

• Anti-sense strand
• Anti-coding strand
• Template strand

• Coding Strand
• Sense Strand
• these are EXACTLY the same as the RNA strand but with thymine instead of Uracil.
• Watch out for the 5'3' convention of writing RNA!

1) Rate of transcription-> RNA has a short half-life so genes must be constantly transcribed in order to continue protein production

2) Activators and Repressors-> certain substances upregulate transciption and others downregulate it...(Classify the following as activators or repressors for the Lac operon...lactose, glucose, Lac I protein, cAMP, CAP)

3) Permanent or Semi-permanent Repression-> methylation or other covalent modification that prevents transcription (When a promoter region of DNA is methylated it often silences the genes)

1) Degenerative= more than one codon for a single amino acid (the 3' nucleotide in the codon and the 5' nucleotide in the anticodon do NOT always need to match perfectly...wobble base pairs)

2) Unambiguous= there is never more than one amino acid coded for by a particular codon

• Start: AUG (methionine)
• Stop: UAA, UAG, UGA

Codons are the 3-nucleotide segments on the mRNA strand (they are read in the 5'->3' direction)...anti-codons are the 3-nucleotide segments that are on the complementary tRNA that brings in the appropriate nucleotide (they are also read in the 5'->3' direction but remember that they are complementary and pair up with codons in the anti-parallel direction).

Ribosome binds upstream of the initial codon and reads the mRNA strand in the 5'->3' direction(the region btwn the ribosome binding site and the intial codon is called the 5' UTR)...when it reaches the Start codon it begins bringing in tRNA's with the appropriate amino acids and catalyzes the polymerization of a polypeptide.

Cytoplasm

(mRNA protein)

Germ cells produce gametes (meiosis) whereas Somatic cells produce normal cells (mitosis) throughout the body.

Germ (sex) cells much worse because they can be transmitted to offspring while somatic (body) cells don't get transmitted.

• 1) Point= a single nucleotide is changed
• 2) Missense mutation= a single nucleotide is changed that causes a new codon in the mRNA strand that codes for a different amino acid
• 3) Nonsense mutation= a single nucleotide is changed that causes a premature stop codon
• 4) Neutral Mutation= the mutation has NO effect on the individual's fitness (the amino acid might still be the same or it might be different but still have none to very little effect on protein function and structure and thus little effect on the organism's fitness)
• 5) Silent mutation= a mutation that has NO effect on the amino acids of the protein...it might be a mutation that creates a new codon that codes for the same protein or it might be a mutation in an intron
• 6) Frameshift mutation= an insertion or deletion causes a shift in the reading frame so that everything after it is new or distorted codons

Spread of diseased cells from one area of the body to another.

Proto-oncogenes are genes that help regulate cell growth.

A gene that has been mutated so that its products, in one way or another, cause cancer

Homozygous for a given trait (may be either dominant or recessive).

• P1 = you
• F1 = your kids
• F2 = your grandkids

Alternate forms of the same gene.

Both cause mutations but carcinogens always cause cancer while mutagens may be benign. All carcinogens are mutagens but not all mutagens are carcinogens.

Alleles segregate independently of one another when forming gametes.

Homologous pairs divide (1 to each gamete) during meiosis.

Genes located on different chromosomes assort independently.

When homologous pairs line up on the metaphase plate they arrange themselves in a random fashion.

Whenever the genotype of an individual is not stated you should assume that it is HOMOZYGOUS DOMINANT!!!!...if the individual is a carrier or is affected (homozygous recessive usually) they will tell you.

The number of individuals in the population carrying the allele who actually express the phenotype.

The varying expression of disease symptoms despite identical genotypes.

A characteristic/trait for which the phenotype depends on many genes to help dictate it.

A single allele that affects many traits.

When cells within the same person have different genetic make-up.

When expression of a gene depends on the parent of origin. Sometimes both copies of a gene are not expressed and the "active" gene is dependent on who the gene came from.

• Epithelial
• Nervous
• Connective
• Muscle

Organ systems > Organs > Tissues > Cells

Slow, general, long-lasting

Fast, specific, short-lived

Local mediator hormones only

Having a pair of each type of chromosome, so that the basic chromosome number is doubled. 46 in humans.

The haploid number is the number of chromosomes in a gamete of an individual. This is distinct from the monoploid number (x), which is the number of unique chromosomes in a single complete set. Gametes (sperm, and ova) are haploid cells.

Two genetically identical, diploid daughter cells.

Four genetically distinct, haploid daughter cells.

Any biomolecule soluble in non-polar solvents and insoluble in polar solvents.