BRM Final

extirpation of parts- systematically destroying parts of brain and noting effects on behavior. important findings with wide generality were gleaned form single organisms

• Sensory Thresholds
• JNDs
• First to apply statistcal methods to psychological problems
• Variability within subjects

• Objective introspection
• Structuralism
• First psychology lab in Germany

• Nonsense syllable
• Retention Curve
• Repeated measures in one individual

• Classical Conditioning
• Single organisms and replication with other organisms
• Direct measurement

• Astronomer
• Normal Curve
• First to study individual differences

• Correlation and factor analysis
• Founded journal Biometricka

Simple mental tests to find individual differences in students at Columbia

• ANOVA
• Agriculture/soil plots comparisons- fate of individual plant irrelevant in context of yield of other plants in area
• Inferences from sample to population

Little Albert- first withdrawal design

• Little experimental control over variables
• Claims exaggerated

• Pooled case studies (clinical replication)
• Success percentage not reliable
• Between groups better

• One of first large between groups designs
• Found that psychotherapy did not work

Early, huge naturalistic study

• Collects data during therapy, not just pre and post
• Uses repeated measures

• Used process and outcome research by using repeated measurements to endpoint of therapy
• Precise repeated measurements in individual and manipulation of variables in single-case design

Proposed experimental single-case approach to isolate mechanisms of change in therapy

Advocated individual differences and said group averages and variance were misleading

• Individual differences
• Champion of idiographic research

Test established hypotheses on a representative participant and subjects who differed in some way

• Time series- included baseline but still correlational (A-B)
• Equivalent- Changing treatment in some way or withdrawing treatment- experimental design

• 1968
• Experimental analysis of behavior- sophisticated methodology of individual subjects

• Variability- monitoring and finding sources of it
• Generality- replication of single-case designs

• Variability- easier to assume extrinsic variability and find sources of it to be precise
• Stability within 5 percent range
• Systematic vs. Direct replication

make meaningful clinical or socially significant behavioral changes

Ignores intersubject variability- can overestimate or underestimate treatment efficacy

• 1. subject may not repond to established treatment
• 2. subject improves with no treatment
• 3. cyclical patterns emerge that override effect of IV

• Averaging two or more data points
• Can make trends more visible
• Dangerous- can make investigator think variability has disappeared or is unimportant

• 1. Across subjects
• 2. Across implementers of treatment
• 3. Across settings

• Need perfectly random sample on variety of variables
• Limited availability of subjects with needed characteristic
• Most fail to generalize across settings and therapists
• More adequately random sample introduces more hetergeneity

• Direct- parallels nonfactorial design with no-treatment control; exact replication of entire study with same implementer of treatment; only studies generality across clients
• Systematic- parallels factorial design; replication with change in one, MAYBE two, variables; generality across clients, bx change agents, and settings can be examined; need 3-5 direct replications before systematic rep

Behavior change methods developed by applied researchers who search for ways to change behavior under everyday circumstances

• Disadvantage of rule- rules often not fully accurate/complete and people may not follow rules because their bx is influenced by experience (contingencies)
• Advantages of rule- more efficient; better when consequences are more costly

• 1. Neural
• 2. Psychic- "mind or personality"
• 3. Conceptual - general qualities like intelligence, talents, abilities

• Combining data from individuals who are related in some way
• Groups not biological organisms and cannot behave

Dead Man's Test

Avoiding fanciful explanations and explaining events in terms that are already well understood

• Biological
• Only occurs at elevel of individual organisms
• Involves movement
• Interaction between organism and environment
• Impacts the environment

• Pure- methods that perserve the fundamental qualities of behavior in an uncontaminated form
• Q-B- Data that originated from behavior but whose methods do not present behavior in an uncontaminated form

• Graduate training
• Experimental literature
• Observing behavior
• Available resources
• Experimental contingencies
• Extra-experimental contingencies

• thematic- related to other studies in specific way
• independent- not connected/related to existing literature

• 1. species
• 2. gender
• 3. age
• 4. accessibility
• 5. repertoire
• 6. environmental history

• 1. compatibility with procedures
• 2. sensitivity to IV
• 3. influence by extraneous variables
• 4. dimensional quantities
• 5. measurability

• 1. specific- guidlines
• 2. observable- multple observers
• 3. replicable - duplicated

• 1. devices
• 2. personnel
• 3. time of day
• 4. instructions
• 5. environmental conditions (e.g., location)

• 1. repeated assesment may not be capturing true change in outcome (people lie)
• 2. validity in question

• 1. description- comparison to treatment
• 2. prediction- level of target behavior attained in future

• Stable
• Deteriorating - trend in desired or undesired direction
• Increasing-Decreasing
• Decreasing-Increasing
• Unstable- extreme variability with no trend
• Unstable with pattern

• Wait
• attempt to determine causes of trend or variability

• A and B almost identical
• Treatment package (A-BC-A-BC)
• Treatment package and one component of it (A-BC-B-BC)

• Full staff/parent cooperation
• Minimal withdrawal risks (e.g., injury)
• Withdrawal will be relatively brief
• Outside influences minimized throughout
• Treatment implemented again ASAP

• Changes in instruction
• New conditioned reinforcers
• Maintenance of behavior through naturally occuring contingencies
• Differences in stimulus conditions

• 1. Sequential withdrawal- withdraw one element of treatment once response acquired and then the second, etc.
• 2. Partial withdrawal- in MB, treamtent from one removed
• 3. Partial-sequential withdrawal strategy- treatment removed in other baselines too

• 1. identification of meaningful responses and their controlling variables for the purpose of understanding/changing behavior
• 2. priority on verbs over nouns

• 1. social significance
• 2. clinical significance
• 3. organizational significance
• 4. personal signficance

• 1. is it important to client?
• 2. risk?
• 3. affect functioning?
• 4. reflect deviance?

• Latency
• Duration

• 1. countability
• 2. frequency
• 3. interresponse time
• 4. interval coding
• 5. secondary measures (indirect/supplementary)

• 1. repeatability
• 2. be relevant
• 3. sensitive to change
• 4. protection against biases
• 5. reliability and validity
• 6. populations norms

• 1. data impossible to verify
• 2. utility varies
• 3. validity concerns
• 4. reporter bias
• 5. lack specificity
• 6. may not correlate with objective measures
• 7. reactive
• 8. influenced by many variables (e.g., timing, belief, expectancy, motivation)

• 1. temorality
• 2. repeatability
• 3. products of bx
• 4. behavior rating scales
• 5. self-report
• 6. physiological

• 1. automatic
• 2. social
• 3. escape/avoidance
• 4. tangible

• analysis- what is being studied
• measurement- how much

• classical
• operant
• discriminated operant

• behavior- portion of interaction with environment
• response- specific instance of behavior (makes up class)
• response class- group of responses that share commonalities

function of intermittent schedule of reinforcement (i.e., can induce excessive unrelated behavior)

• determining ownership
• can't be sure one product equals one behavior
• don't know if topography is same for every product

• 1. collective, equivalent, interactive- collective and equal contributions through interaction (noise)
• 2. collective, equivalent, noninteractive- collection of individuals who don't interact but respond in same way in same setting (consumer purchases)
• 3. collective, nonequivalent- individual behavior contributes to collect outcome but contributions may differ and individuals may/may not interact (assembly line)

• specificity
• sensitivity

• description
• comparison
• prediction

change in frequency over time

• experimental question
• reserach literature
• target behavior
• objectives of study
• intervention procedures

• 1. history
• 2. maturation
• 3. testing
• 4. instrumentation
• 5. attrition
• 6. statistical regression
• 7. multiple intervention interference
• 8. instability
• 9. selection biases
• 10. diffusion of treatment

environmental events that occur during study

changes that occur because of changes in measuring instrument, observers, interviewers

tendency for extreme scores to regress toward mean when measured again

control and experimental conditions don't remain distinct

• 1. generality across participants
• 2. generality across settings
• 3. generality across response classes
• 4. generality across times
• 5. generality across behavior change agents
• 6. reactive experimental arrangements
• 7. reactive assessment
• 8. pretest sensitization
• 9. sequence effects

behave differently because of status as participants

• 1. foster clinical innovation
• 2. cast doubt on prior theoretical assumptions
• 3. permit study of rare phenomena
• 4. develop new technical skills
• 5. result in refinement of clinical techniques
• 6. support theoretical views
• 7. provide data as point of departure for controlled investigations
• 8. can be used when you have to react quickly

• 1. many uncontrolled factors
• 2. evidence for improvement usually clinician's global impression and not measurement of behavior
• 3. strong possibility of bias
• 4. inability to control for internal and external threats to validity

• 1. don't know if change in responding is due to switching phases
• 2. don't know if change due to intervention
• 3. shows just one instance of change
• 4. doesn't show what natural course of behavior would have been without intervention

• ad:
• 1. higher degree of certainty treatment is response for change
• 2. predicts performance in future
• dis:
• 1. ends on baseline
• 2. sequential confounding

• strongest single-case design
• practioners don't use as much bc it requires withdrawal

• multiple schedule
• multi-element
• randomization
• simulataneous treatment
• multiple treatment

• 1. tell which treatment is effective
• 2. no withdrawal
• 3. contorls for history
• 4. quicker
• 5. controls for background trends because both treatments being compared against same background trends
• 6. can begin with treatment
• 7. trends are irrelevant (comparing just 2 treatments)

• 1. multiple treatment interference (sequence or carryover effects)
• 2. only use with rapidly changing behaviors
• 3. differences must be quite apparent
• 4. can't use in drug treatments
• 5. testing effect

• ad:
• 1. useful for gradually changing bx over time
• 2. may reach higher levels than a different design that isn't implemented for as much time and gradually
• dis:
• 1. determining causality difficult
• 2. history as threat to internal validity

• ad:
• 1. controls for threats to interval validity better than withdrawal
• dis:
• 1. baseline could get long
• 2. clients must be treated in a certain order
• 3. must have very comparable clients
• 4. requires relatively stable baselines
• 5. interdependence

• 1. more practical for clinicians (work with individual cases)
• 2. Have baselines to compare (initial assessments)
• 3. Help practitioners to be skeptics (must collect data to know if you're making a difference)
• 4. provides feedback to clinician
• 5. Tells if treatment works or which treatment is best
• 6. Group statistics- Crud factor- add more participants to get bigger effect size

• 1. When you run into something interesting, drop everything and study it
• 2. Some ways of doing research are better than others
• 3. People get lucky
• 4. Apparatuses sometimes break down
• 5. Serendipity

• 1. Experimental questions should ask about subject matter and the variables that influence it (not about theory)
• 2. Variability is indicative of experimental control
• 3. Value of data is related to degree of experimental control achieved
• 4. Generality emerges from understanding controlling variables
• 5. Experimental methods must be adapted to subject matter

• 1. Behavior is an important subject matter in its own right
• 2. Bx is a phenomenon resulting from interaction between organization and environment
• 3. behavior-environment interactions occur through time
• 4. natural unit of behavior analysis is the reponse class
• 5. model that best describes behavior is the three term contingency
• 6. bx is orderly when controlling variables are managed
• 7. experimenter's bx must be viewed/managed in the same way as the subject's bx

• 1. undertaught
• 2. not aimed at clinician
• 3. associated with behaviorism
• 4. clinicians don't distinguish between research and group design
• 5. few outlets for clinical reserach
• 6. clinical agencies provide little support for research

• 1. repeated measurement
• 2. establishment of degree of intraclient variability
• 3. specification of conditions
• 4. replication
• 5. attitude of investigative play
• 6. creative use of design elements

• Changes within series of data points
• Simple phase change (ABAB or BCBC)
• Complex (B-BC-B; A-B-A-C-A; changing criterion)

alternating treatment or simultaneous treatment designs (comparing two or more series of data points)

multiple basline

• Simultaneous treatment design
• 3 different delivered 3 contingencies at the same time (verbal praise, verbal punishment, and ignoring bx)
• Adv to STD- no replication of baseline; counter-balancing for sequence effects; statistical test available

• 1. Train and hope
• 2. Sequential modification (scheduling behavior change in desired conditions)
• 3. Introduce naturally maintaining contingencies
• 4. train sufficient exemplars (training enough models to generalize)
• 5. train loosely (little control over contingencies)
• 6. Use indiscriminable contingencies (intermittent schedules of reinforcement)
• 7. Program common stimuli
• 8. Mediate generalization (telling them?)
• 9. train to generalize (treat generalization as response itself)

• 1. reliability
• 2. generality

First multiple baseline but didn't define variables well

One of several possibile variations that a set or number of things can be arranged/ordered

Thinking people have free will or that bx is not influenced by the environment limits our ability to grow or be more successful. If behavior is not caused by outside influences, studying bx would be impossible because there wouldn't be consistent relationships between bx and environmental variables. Instead, behavior is determined by other events.

• extraneous explanations/variables
• small literature
• contradicts literature
• little experience with procedure

Encouraged randomization when making alternating treatments design amenable to statistical analysis

• 1. Subject variables
• 2. Treatment variables
• 3. Procedural variables
• 4. Environmental variables

nonconcurrent MB design- good with clients at different times; can rule out history as threat to internal validity

• 1. one observer scoring higher
• 2. observers marking different bxs
• 3. "crud factor"- increase participants increasing effect

Defining phenomena based on variation, so meaning varies with each application

• 1. Are the goals what society wants? (goals)
• 2. Do the ends justify the means? (procedures)
• 3. Are consumers satisfied with the results? (effects)

• 1. independent verification
• 2. functional manipulation

Pointed out that IOA needs to account for chance

Using newly developed treatments in practice

• Deterministic- DV completely controlled by IV
• Stocastic- DV controlled at least in part by other variables

• Behavior doesn't happen in a vacuum
• i.e., Eliminating or changing one behavior can result in another behavior appearing to satisfy function of previous behavior

Simultaneous presentation of treatments

Sequential alternating treatment design- combo of alternating treatments and multiple baseline

• "Percentage of All Non-overlapping Data"
• combined PND and r² to remedy their deficiencies
• Closly related to Phi
• May be useful for effect size in multiple baseline and other longer single case research designs