All the shit.txt

Awareness of external stimuli in one's own mental activity

The level at which mental activities that people are normally aware of occur.

A level of mental activity that is inaccessible to conscious awareness

The level of mental activity that is not currently conscious but of which we can easily become conscious

A level of mental activity that influences consciousness was not conscious

The characteristics of consciousness at any particular moment

A condition in which changes in mental processes are extensive enough that a person or others notice significant differences in psychological and behavioral functioning

Sleep stages three and four, which are accompanied by slow, deep breathing; a calm, regular heartbeat; and reduced blood pressure

A stage of sleep in which brain activity and other functions resemble the waking state but that is accompanied by rapid eye movements and virtual muscle paralysis

A sleep disorder in which a person feels tired during the day because of trouble falling asleep or staying asleep at night

A daytime sleep disorder in which a person switches abruptly from an active, often emotional waking state into several minutes of REM sleep

A sleeping disorder in which people briefly but repeatedly stop breathing during the night

Disorder in which a sleeping baby stops beating and dies

Frightening dream that takes place during REM sleep

Horrific dreams that causes rapid awakening from stages three or four sleep and intense fear for 30 minutes

A phenomenal primarily occurring in non-REM sleep in which people walk while the sleep

A sleep disorder in which a person does not lose muscle tone during REM sleep allowing the person to act out dreams

A cycle, such as waking and sleeping, that repeats about once a day

A syndrome of fatigue, irritability, inattention, and sleeping problems caused by air travel across several time zones

Story like sequence of images, sensations, and perceptions occurring mainly during REM sleep

Awareness that a dream is a dream while it is happening

A phenomenon brought on by special induction techniques in characterized by varying degrees of responsiveness to suggestions for changes in experience and behavior

A theory that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness

A theory that hypnotized people act in accordance with special social role that provides a socially acceptable reason to follow the hit no cysts suggestions

A theory Defining gnosis as a social agreed-upon opportunity to display ones ability to let mental functions become dissociated

Substance that acts on the brain to create some psychological effect

The study of psychoactive drugs and their effects

A feature of blood vessels supplying the brain that allows only certain substances to leave the blood and indirect with brain tissue

Drug that mimics the effects of Nero transmitter that normally binds to a neural receptor

Drugs that bind to a receptor and prevents the normal neurotransmitter from binding

The self administration of psychoactive drug in ways that deviate from a culture's social norms

A condition in which a person uses a drug despite adverse effects, needs the drug for a sense of well-being, and becomes preoccupied with attaining it

Development of a physical need for a psychoactive drug

Symptoms associated with discontinuing the use of a habit-forming substance

The condition in which increasingly larger drug doses are needed to produce a given effect

Psychoactive drug that inhibits the functioning of the central nervous system

Psychoactive drug that has the ability to increase behavioral mental activity

Psychoactive drug, such as opium, morphine, or heroine, that produces sleep inducing in pain relieving effects

• Psychoactive drug that alters consciousness by producing a temporary loss of contact with reality and changes in emotion, perception, and talkPersonality
• the pattern of psychological and behavioral characteristics by which each person can be compared and contrasted with others

Freud's view that personality is based on the interplay of unconscious mental processes

the unconscious portion of personality that contains basic impulses and urges

the psychic energy contain in the id

the id's operating principle, which guides people toward whatever feels good

the part of the personality that mediates conflicts between and among the demands of the id, the superego, and the real world

the operating principle of the ego that creates compromises between the id's demands and those of the real world

the component of personality that tells people what they should and should not do

psychological responses that help protect a person from anxiety and guilt. (Repression, rationalization, projection, reaction formation, sublimation, displacement, denial, compensation)

perids of personality development in which, according to Freud, conflicts focus on particular issues

the first of Freud's psychosexual stages, in which the mouth is the center pleasure and conflict

the second of Freud's psychosexual stages, usually occurring during the second year of life, in which the focus of pleasure and conflict shifts from the mouth to the anus

the thrird of Freud's psychosexual stages, in which the focus of pleasure and conflict shiftis to the genital area

a pattern described by Freud in which a boy has sexual desire for his mother and wants to eliminate his father's competitionfor her attention

a pattern described by Freud in which a young girl develops an attachmentto her father and competes with her mother for his attention

the fourth of Frued;s psychosexual stages, in which sexual impulses lie dormant

the last of Freud;s psychosexual stages, which begins during adolescence, when sexual impulses appear at the conscious level

a perspective in which personality is seen as a combination of charactersitics that people display over time and across situations

five trait dimensions found in man factor-analytic studies of personality: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness

an approach in which personality is seen as the patterns of thinking and behavior that a person learns

analyzing behavior by studying what responses occur underwhat conditions of operant reward and punishment

according to Bandura, learned expectations about the probability of success in given situations

a view in which personality develops through an actualiaxing tendency that unfolds in accordance with each person's unique perceptions of the world

according to rogers, and innate inclination toward growth that motivates all people

the way one thinks of oneslf

according to Rodgers, the feelings an individual experiences when the person, instead of the person's behavior, is evaluated

according to Maslow, a preoccupation with perceived needs for things a person does not have

according to Maslow, a tendency to draw satisfaction from what is available in live, rather than to focus on what is missing

tests containing direct, unambiguous items relating to the individual being assessed

• tests made up of unstructured stimuli that can be perceived and responded to in many waysEncoding
• The Process of acquiring information and entering it into memory

the mental representation of information as a sequence of sounds

the mental representation of information as images

the mental representation of an experience by its general meaning

the process of maintaining information in memory over time

the process of recalling information stored in momory

memory of an even that happened while won was present

A type of memory containing generalized knowledge of the world

a type of memory containing information about how to do things

the process in which people intentionally try to remember something

the unintentional influence of prior experiences

A view stating how well something is remembered depends on the degree to which incoming information is mentally processed

repeating information over and over to keep it active in short-term memory

a memrization method that involves thinking about how new information relates to information already stored in long-term memory.

a memorization method that involves thinking about how new information relates to information already stored in long-term memory

a model of memory that suggests that a critical determinant of memory is how well the retrieval process match the original encoding process

Memory models in which new experiences changed one's overall knowledge base.

a medel of memory in which information is seen as passing through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

a type of memory that holds large amounts of incoming information very briefly, buy long enough for it to be processed further

memory systems that hold incoming information long enough for it to be processed further

the focusing of mental resources on only part of the stimulus field

the maintenance component of working memory, which holds unrehearsed information for a limited time

the art of the memory system that allows us to mentally work with, or manipulate, information being held in short-term memory.

the maximum number of item a person can recall perfectly after one presentation of the items

stimuli that are preceived as one unit or as a peaningful grouping of information

a method for determining how long information rematins in short-term memory

a relatively long-lasting stage of memory whose capacity to store new information is believed to be unlimited

a characteristic of memory in which recall of the first two of three irems in a list is particularly good

a characteristic of memory in which recall is particulaly food for the last few items in a list

stimuli that aid the recall of recognition of information stored in memory

a principle stating that the abiliy of a cue to aid retrieval depends on the degree to wch it taps into information that was encoded at the time of the original learning

memory that can be helped or hindered by similarities or differences between the context in which it is learned and the context in which it is recalled

memory that can be helped or hindered by similarities or differences between the context in which it is learned and the context in which it is recalled.

memory that is aided or impeded by a person's internal state

a principle that explains how information is retrieved in semantic newtwork theories of memory

mental representations of categories of objects, events, and people

measuring forgetting by computing the difference between the number or repetitions needed to lean and, after a delay, relearn the same material

the gradual disappearance of the mental representation of a stimulus

the process through which either the storage or the retrieval of information is impaired by the presence of other information

a cause of forgetting in which new information placed in memory inerteres with the abilit to recall information already in memory

a cause of forgetting in which information already in memory interferes with the ability to remember new information

a loss of memory for any even that occurs after a bgrain injury

a loss of memory for events prior to a brain injury

the influence that ccount for the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior

A reason or purpose for behavior

a view that explains human behavior as moticated by automatic, involuntary, and unlearned responses

innate, automatic dispositions toward responding in a particular way when congronted with a specific stimulus

the tendency for organisms to keep their physiological systems at a stable, steady level by constantly adjusting themselves in response to change

a theory of motivation stating that motivationarises from imbalances in homeostasis

a biological requirement for well-being that is created by an imbalance in homeostasis

a psychological state of arousal created by an imbalance in homeostasis that prompts an organism to take action to restore the balance and reduce the drive

drives that arise from basic biological needs

stimuli that acquire the moticational properties of primary drives through classical conditioning or other learning mechanisms

a general level of activation that is reflected in several physiological systems

theories of motication stating that people are motivated to behave in ways that maintain what is, for them, an optimal level of arousal

a theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli

the general state of wanting to eat

the condition of no longer wanting to eat

a condition in which a person in severely overweight, as measured by a body-massindex greater than 30

an eating disorder characterized by self-starvation and dragmatic weight loss

an eating disorder that involves eating massive amounts of food and then eliminating the food by self-induced vomiting or the use of strong laxatives

the pattern of physiological arousal during and after sexual activity

chemicals in the blood of males and femmales that have both organizational and activational effects on sexual behavior

feminine sex horomones that circulate in the bloodstream of both men and women; relatively more strogens circulate in women

feminine sex hormones that circulate in the bloodstream of both men and women; relatively more progestines circulate in women

masculine sex horomones that circulate in the bloodstream in both sexes; relatiely more androgens circulate in men than women

referring to sexual motivation that is focused on members of the opposite sex

referring to sexual motivation that is focused on members of one's own sex

referring to sexual motivation that is focused on members of both sexes

problems with sex that involve sexual motivation, arousal, or orgasmic response

a motive reflected in the degree to which a person establishes specific goals, and esperiences feelings of satisfaction by doing so

a combination of a cognitive judgement of satisfaction with life, the frequent experiencing of positive moods and emotions, and the relatively ingrequent experiencing of unpleasant moods and emotions

a transitory positive or negative experience that is felt as happening to the self, is generated in part by cognitive appraisal of a situation, and is accompanied by both learned and reflexive physical response

the subsystem of the autonomic nervous system that usually prepares the organism for vigorous activity

the subststem of the autonomic nervous system that typically influences activity related to the protection, nourishment, and growth of the body

the phtysical reactions initiated by the sympathetic nervous system that prepare the body to fight or to run from a threatening situation

the process of explaining the causes of an event

a process in which arousal from one experience carries over to affect emotion in an independent situation

the capacity to reason, remember, understand, solve problems, and make decisions

those attributes that center around skill at information processing, and problem solving, and adapting to new or changing situations

A test for determining a person's intellgence quotient, or IQ

a test designed to measure intelligence on an objectives, standardized scale

an index of intelligence that reflects the degree to which a person's score on an intelligence test deviates from the average score of others in the same age group

a test designed to measure a person's capacity to learn certain things or perform certain tasks

a measure of what a person has accomplished or learned in a particular area

a systematic procedure for observing behavior in a standard situation and describing it with the help pf a numerical scale or a category system

a description of the frequency at which particular scores occur, allowing scores to be compared statistically

the degree to which a test can be repeated with the same results

the degree to which test scores are interpreted correctly and used appropriately

a way of studying intelligence that emphasizes analysis of the product of intelligence, especially scores on intelligence tests

a general intelligence factor that Charles Spearman postulated as accounting for positive correlations between people's scores on all sons of cognitive ability tests

a group of special abilities that charles Spearman saw as accompaanying gernal intellignece (g)

the basic power of reasoning and problem solving

the specific knowledge gained as a result of applying fluid intelligence

an approach to the study of intelligence that focuses on mental operations, such as attention and memory, that underlie intelligent behavior

Robert Sternberg's theory that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative, and practical dimensions

eight semiindependent kinds of intelligence postulated by Howard Gardner

the capacity to produce new, high-quality ideas or products

the ability to think along many alternatives paths to generate many different solutions to a problems

the ability to apply logic and knowledge to narrow down the number of possible solutions to a problem or perform some other complex cognitive task

the knowledge of what strategies to apply, when to apply them, and how to use them in new situations

the modification through experience of pre-existing behavior and understanding

the process of adapting to stimuli that do not change

a procedure in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflex or other response until until the neutral stimulu alone comes to elicit a similar response

a stimulus that elicits a response without conditioning

the originally neutral stimulus that, through pairing with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a conditioned response

the automatic or unlearned reaction to a stimulus

the response that the conditioned stimulus elicits

the gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus no longer predicts the appearance of an unconditioned stimulus

the quick relearning of a conditioned response following extintion

the reappearance of the conditioned response after extinction and without further pairings of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli

a phenomenon in which a conditioned response is elicited by stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus

a process through which individuals learn to differentiate among similar stimuli and respond appropriately to each one

a phenomenon in which a conditioned stimulus acts like an unconditioned stimulus, creating conditioned stimuli out of events associated with it

a law stating that if a response made in the presence of a particular stimulus is followed by staifaction, that response is more likely the next time the stimulus is encountered

a process through which an organism learns to respond to the environment in a way that produces positive consequences and avoids negative ones

a process through which an organism learns to respond to the environment in a way that produces positive consequences and avoids negative ones

a response that has some effect on the world

a stimulus even that increases the probability that the response that immediately preceded it will occur again

stimuli that strenghen a response if they follow that response

the removal of unpleasant stimuli, such as pain

a type of learning in which an organism learns to make a particular response in order to terminate an aversive stimulus

a type of learning in which an organism responds to a signal in a way that prevents exposure to an aversive stimulus

stimuli that signal whether reinforcement is available if a certain response is made

the process of reinforcing responses that come successively closer to the desired response

reinforcers that meet an organsim's basic needs, such as food and water

a reward that people or animals learn to like

a pattern in which a reinforcer is delivered every time a particular response occurs

a pattern in which a reinforcer is administered only some of the time after after a particular response occurs

a partila reinforcement schdule that provides reinforcement follwing a fixed number of responses

a partial reinforcement scheduleb that provides reinforcement for the first response that occurs after some fixed time has passed since the last reward

a partial reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement for the first response that occurs after some fixed time has passed since the last reward

a partial reinforcement schdule that provides reinforcement for the first response after varying periods of time

the gradual disappearance of operant behavior due to elimination of rewarding for that behavior

a phenomenon in which behaviors learned under a partial reinforcement schdule are more difficult to extinguish than behaviors learned on a continuous reinforcement schedule

presentation of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a pleasant stimulus

learning that responses do not affect consequences, resulting in failure to try to exert control over the environment

learning that is not demonstrated at the time it occurs

a mental representation of the environment

a sudden understanding about what is required to solbe a problem

learning how to perform new behaviors by watching others

• learning conditioned responses by watching what happens to otherscritical thinking
• the process of assessing claims and making judgments on the basis of well-supported evidence

in scientific research, a prediction stated as a specific, testable propsition about a phenomenon

a statement that defines the exact operations or methods used in research

a factor or characteristic that is manipulated or measured in research

numbers that represent research findings and provide the basis for research conclusions

an integrated set of propositions that can be used to account for, predict, and even suggest ways of controlling certain phenomena

the process of watching without interfering as a phenomenon occurs in the natural enviroment

a research method involving the intensive examination of some phenomenon in a particular individual, group, or situation

a research method that involves giving people questionnaires or special interviews designed to obtain descriptions of their attitudes, beliefs, opinions, and intentions

a research method that examines relationships between variables in order to analyze trends in data, to test predictions, to evaluate theoriesm and to suggest new hypotheses

a situation in which the researcher manipulates one variable and then observes the effect of that manipulation on another variable, while holding all other variables constant

in an experiment, the group that revieces the experimental treatment

in an experiment, the group that receives no treatment or provides some other baseline against which to compare the performance or response of the experimental group

the variable manipulated by the researcher in an experiemtn

in a nexperiment, the factor affected by the independent variable

in an experiment, any factor that affects the dependent variable, along with or instead of the independent variable

in an experiment, a confounding variable in which uncontrolable factors affect the dependent variable, along with or instead of the independent variable

the procedure by which random variables are evenly distributed in a nesperiment by putting participants into various groups through a random process

a physical or psychological treatment that contains no active ingredients but produces an effect because the person recieving it blieves it will

a congoudning variable tha occurs when an experimenter unintentionally encourages participants to respond in a way that supports the hypothesis

a research design in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know who is in the experimental group and who is in the control group

the process of selecting participants who are members of the population that the researcher wishes to study

a group of research participants whose characteristics farily reflect the characteristics of the population from which they were selected

a group of research participants selected from a population whose members all had an equal chance of being chosen

a group of research participants selected from a population each of whose members did not have an equal chance of being chosen

the study of how genes and enviroments affect behavior

numbers that describe and summarize a set of reseach data

a set of mathematical procedures that help researchers infer what their data might mean

a measure of central tendency that is the value or score that occurs most frequently in a data set

a measure of cental tendency that is the halfway point in a set of data

a measure of cental tendency that is the arithmetic average of the scores in a set of data

a measure of variablity that is the difference between the highest and the lowest values in a data set

a measure of variability that is the average difference between each score and the mean of the data set

in research, the degree to which one variable is related to another

a statistic, r, that summarizes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables

• a term used to describe research results when the outcome of a statistical test indicates that the probabilty of those results occuring by chance is smallpsychology
• the science of behavior and mental processes

psychologists who analyze the biological facots influencing behavior and mental process

psychologists who seek to understand, describe, and explore how behavior and mental processes change over the course of a lifetime

psychologists who study the mental processes underlying judgment, decision making, problem solving, imagining, and other aspects of human thought or cognition

a filed in which psychs study human factors in the use of equiptment and help designers create better versions of that equipment

psychologists who study the characteristics that make individuals similar to, or different from, on another

Psychologists who seek to assess, understand, and change abnormal behavior

psychs who work to obtaion psychological services for people in need of help and to prevent psychological disorders by working for changes in social systems

psychologists who study the effects of behavior and mental processes on health and illness, and vice versa

psychs who study methods by which instructiors teach and students learn and who apply their results to improving such methods

psychologists who test IQ, diagnose students's acedemic problems, and set up programs to improve students' achievement

psychs who develop and use statistical tools to analyze research data

psychs who study how people influence one another's behavior and mental processes, indicidually and in groups

psychs who study ways to improve efficiency, productivity, and satisfaction among workers and the organization that emply them

psychs who explore the relationships between athletic performance and such psychological variables as motivation and emotion

psychs who assist in jury selection, evaluate defendants metal competence to stand trial, and deal with other issues involving psychology and the law

Psychs who study the effects of the physical enviromental on behavior and mental processes

to studyb conscious experience and its structure

to describe organization of mental processes: "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts"

to explain personality and behavior; to develop techniques for treating mental disorders

to study how the mind works in allowing an organism to adapt to the environment

to study only observable behavior and explain behavior via learning principles

an approach in which behavior and ehacior disorders are seen as the result of physical processes, especially those relating to the brain and to hormones and other chemicals

an approach to psychology that emphasizes the inherited, adaptive aspects of behacior and mental processes

a view developed by Freud that emphasizes the interplay of unconscious mental processes in determining human thought, feeling, and behavior

approach to psychology emphasizing that human behavior is determined mainly by what a person has learned, expecially from rewards and punishment

a way of looking at human behavior that emphasizes research on how the brain takes in information, creates perceptions, froms and retrieves memories, processes infromation, and generates integrated patterns of action

approach to psychology that views behavior as controlled by the decisions that people make about their lives based on their perceptions of th world

the accumulations of values, rules of behavior, forms of expression, religious belief, occumational choices, and the like for a group of people who share a common language and environment

the study of the mental processes by which information from the enviroment is modified, made meaningful, stored, retrieved, used, and manipulated to others

mechanisms for receiving information, representing it with symbols, and manipulating it.

the manipulation of mental representations

the time between the presentation of a stimulus and an overt response to it.

a small, temporary change in EEG voltage that is evoked by some stimulus

a category of objects, events, or ideas that have common properties

a concept that can be clearly defined by a set of rules or properties

a concept that has no fixed set of defining features but has a set of characteristics features

a member of a natural concept that possesses all or most of its characterisitic features

a mental representation of the relationship between concepts

a generalization about categories of objects, places, events, and people

a mental representation of familiar sequences of activity

a cluster of propsitions representing our understanding of objects and processes that guides our interaction with those things

a mental representation of visual information

a mental representation of familiar parts of the envirmonment

the process by which peoploe generate and evaluate arguments and reach conclusions about them

the process of folloing a set of rigorous procedures for reaching valid conclusions

a systematic procddure that cannot fail to prduce a correct solution to a problem, if a solution exists

sets of statements that provide a formula for drawing valid conclisions

an argument made up of two propositions, called premises, and a conclision based on those premises, and a conclusion based on those premises.

the tendency to pay more attention to evidence in support of one's hypothesis

the process of evaluation a conclusion, theory , or course or action on the basis of the believability of evidence.

time-saving mental short-cuts used in reasoing

a mental shortfut that involves basing judgements on existing information

a mental shortcut that involves judging whether something belongs in a given class on the basis of its similarity to the members of that class

a mental shortcut through which judgements are based on information that is most easily brought to mind

the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist, even when they might not always be the mostefficient alternative.

a tendency to think about familiar objects in familiar ways that may prevent using them in other ways

the field that studies how to program computers to imitate the products of human perception, understanding, and thought

a subjective measure of value

the total benefit to be expected if a decision were to be repeated several times

symbols and a set of rules for combining them that provides a vehicle for communication

a set of rules for combinging the words used in a given language

the smallest unit of sound that affects the meaning of speech

the smallest unit of language that has meaning

unit of language composed of one or more morphemes

the set of rules that govern the formation of phrases and sentences in a language

rules governing the meaning of words and sentences

the order in which words are arranged in sentences

an abstract representation of the underlying meaning of a given sentence

the first sounds infants make that resemble speech

a stage of language developement during which children tend to use one word at a time

The process through which people take raw sensations from the enviroment and interpret them, using knowledge, experience, and understanding of thw world, so that the sensations become meaningful experiences

an approach to preception that focuses on how computation by the nervous system translate raw sensory stimulation into an experience of reality

a view of perception taken by those who argue that the perceptual system uses fragments of sensory information to construct an image of reality

an approach to perception maintaining that humans and other species are so well adapted to their natural environment that many aspects of the world are preceived without requiring higher-level analysis and inferences

an area of research focusing on the relationship between the physical characteristics of environmental stimuli and the psychological experiences those stimuli produce

the minimum amount of stimulus energy that can be detected 50 percent of the time

stimuli that are too weak or breif to be perceived

stimuli that are strong enough to be consistently perceived

the ability to detect a stimulus

the internal rule a person uses to decide whether or not to report a stimulus

a mathematical model of what determins a person's report that a newar-threshold stimulus has or has not occurred

the smallest detectable difference in stimulus energy

a law stating that the smallest detectable difference in stimulus energy is a constant fraction of the intensity of the stimulus

the task of determining what edges and other stimuli go together to form an object

the perceptual process through which sounds are mentally represented and interprested

the ability to perceive distance

a depth cue whereby closer objects block one's view of things farther away

a depth cue whereby larger objects are perceived as clser than smaller ones

a depth cue whereby objects higher in the visual field are preceived as more distant

a graduated change in the texture, or grain, of the visual feld, whereby objects with finer, less detailed textures are preceived as more distant

a depth cue whereby objects closer to the poin at which two lines appear to conver are preceived as eing at a greater distance

a depth cue whereby a difference in the apparent rate of movement of different objects provides information abou the relative distance of those objects

the ability of the lens of the eye to change its shape and bend light so that objects are in focus

a depth cue involving the rotation of theyes to project the image of an object on each retina

a depth cue based on the difference between two retinal images of the world

a motion cue involving a rapid expansion in size of an image so that it fills the available space on the retina

an illusion in which lights or images flashed in rapid succession are preceived as moving

the perception of objects as contstant size, shape, color, and other properties despite changes in their retinal image

aspects of recognition that are guided by higher-level cognitive processes and psychological factors such as expectations

aspects of recognition that depend first on the information about the stimlus that comes to the brain from the sensory receptors

mental representations of what we know, and have come to expect, about the world

an approach to understanding objects are thought to be simultaneously analyzed by a number of widely distibuted, but connected, neural units in the brain

the process of directing and focusing psychological resources to enhance perception, performance, and mental experience

the study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behavior influenced by, the behavior or others

mental processes associated with people's perceptions of, and reaction to, other people

the way one thinks of oneself

the evaluation people make about how worthy they are as human beings

using one's previous performance or characteristics as a basis for judging oneself in the present

using other people as a basis of comparison for evaluating oneself

categories of people to whic people compare themselves

the belief that, in comparison to a refernce group, one is getting less than is deserved

the belief we hold about the groups to which we belong

mental representations that people form of themselves

the processes through which people interpret information about others, draw inferences about them, and develop mental representations of them

a process through which an initial impression of someone leads that person to behave in accordance with that impression

the process of explaining the causes of people's behavior, including one's own

a bias toward overattributting the behavior of others to internal causes

the tendency to attribute other people's behavior to internal causes while attributing one's own behavior (especially errors and failures) to externalo causes

the tendency to attribute one's own success to internal characteristics while blaming one's failures on external causes

a predisposition toward a particualr cognitive, emotional, or behavioral reaction to objects

a model suggesting that attitude change can be driven by evaluation of the content of a persuasive message (central route) or by irrelevant persuasion cues (peripheral route)

a theory asserting that attitude change is driven by efforts to reduce tension caused by inconsistencies between attitudes and behaviors

a theory suggesting that attitudes can change as people consider their behavior in certain situations and then infer what their attitude must be

false assumptions that all members of some group share the same charatersistics

a positive or negative attitude toward an entire group of people

differential treatment of various groups; the behavioral component of prejudice

the idea that stereotypes and prejudice toward a group will diminish as acontact with the group increases

the psychological specilty that documents the course of social, emotional, moral, and intellectual development over the life span

natural growth or change that unfolds in a fixed sequence relatively independent of the environment

a new cell, formed from a father's sperm and a mother's ovum

the develping individual from the fourteenth day after ferilization until the end of the second month after conveption

the developing individual from the third month after conception until birth

harmful substances that can cause birth defects

an interval during which certain kinds of growth must occur if development is to proceed normally

a pattern of physical and mental defects found in babies borm to women who abused alcohol during pregnancy

generalizations based on experience that form the basic units of knowledge

the process of trying out existing shcemas on objects that fit those schemas

the process of modifying schemas when familiar schemas do not work

the first of Piaget's stages of cognitive development, when the infant's mental activity is confined to sensory perception and mortor skills

the knowledge that objects exist even when they are not in view

according to Piaget, the second stage of cognitive development, during which children begin to use symbols to represent things that are not present

the ability to recognize that the important properties of a substance remain constant despite changes in shape, length, or position

according to Piaget, the third stage of cognitive development, during which children's thinking is no longer dominated by visual appearances

according to piaget, te fourth stage in cognitive development, usually beginning around age eleven, when abstract thinking first appears

an individual's basic disposition, which is evident from infancy

a deep and enduring relationshop with the person with whom a baby has shareed many esperiences

firm, punitive, and unsympathetic parents who value obedience from the child and authority for themselves

parents who give their child great freedom and lax discipline

parents who reason with the child, encourage give and take, and are firm but understanding

the ability to control one's emotions and behavior

patterns of work, appearance, and behavior that a society associates with being male of female

the generalizations children develop about what toys, activities, and occupations are "appropriate" for males versus females

a quality allowing children to develop normally in spite of servere environmental risk factors

the condition of being able, for the first time, to reproduce

the part of a person's identity associated with the racial, religious, or cultural group to which the persons belongs

a phase during which an adolescent attepts to develop an integrated self-images

reasoning that is not yet based on the conventions or rules that guide social interactions in society

reasoning tht reflects the belief that morality consists of following rules and conventions

reasoning that reflects mmoral judgements based on peronal standards or universal principles or justince, equality, and respect for human life

the process whereby a woman's reproductive capacity ceases

a point at around age forty when adults take stock of their lives

adult concerns about producing or generating something

a sharp decline in mental funtioning that tends to occur in late adulthood, a few years or months before death

a system that translates information from outside the nervous system into neural activiy

messages from the senses that make up the raw information that affects many kinds of behavior and mental processes

structures, such as the lens of the eye, that modify a stimulus

the process of converting incoming energy into neural activity through receptors

the process of converting incoming energy into neural activity through receptors

specialized cells that detect certain forms of energy

the process through which responsiveness to an unchanging stimulus decreases over time

thranslating the physical properties of a stimulus into a pattern of neural activity that specifically identifies those properties

the discovery that stimulus of a particular sensory nerve procides codes for that sense, no mattre how the stimulation takes place

coding attributes of a stimulus in terms of the location of firing neurons relative to their neighbors

a repetitive fluctuation in the pressure of a medium, such as air

the difference between the peak and the baseline of a waveform

the distance from one peak to the next in a wave form

the number of complete waveforms, or cycles, that pass by a given point in space every second

a psychological dimension of sound determined by the amplitude of a sound wave

how high or low a tone sounds

the mixture of frequencies and amplitudes that make up the quality of sound

a membrane in the middle ear that generates vibrations that math the sound waves striking it

a fluid-filled spiral structure in the ear in which auditory transduction occurs

the floor of the fluid-filled duct that runs through the cochlea

the bundle of axons that carries stimulu from the hair cells of the cochlea to the brain

the area in the brain's temporal lobe that is first to receive information about sounds from te thalamus

a theory that hair cells at a particular place on the basilar membrane respond most to a particular frequency of sound

the view that some sounds are coded in tems of the frequency of neural firing

electromagnetic radiation that has a wavelength of about 400 nanometers to about 750

a physical dimension of light waves that refers to how much energy that light contains; it determines the brightness of light

the distance between peaks in light waves

the curved, transparent, protective layer through which light rays enter the eye

an opening in the eye, just behind the cornea, through which light passes

the colorful part of the eye, which constricts or relaxes to adjust the amound of light entering the eye

the part of the eye behind the pupil that bends light ras, focusing them on the retina

the surface at the back of the eye onto which the lens focuses light rays

the ability of the lens to change its sape and bend light rays so that objects are in focus

nerve cells in the retina that code light energy into neural activity

chemical in photorecptors that respond to light and assist in converting light into nerual activity

the increasing ability to see in the dark as time in the dark increases

highly ligh-sensitive, but color insensitive, photorecptor in the retina that allows vision even in dim light

photoreceptors in the reina that help us to distinguish colors

a region in the center of the retina where cones are highly concentrated

visual clarity, which is greates in the fovea because of its large concentration of cones

a process in which lateral connections allow one photoreceptor to inhibit the responsiveness of its neighbor, thus enhancing the sensation of visual contrast

cells i the retina that generate action potentials

the portion of the retina, and the visual world, that affects a given ganglion cell

a bundle of fibers composed of axons of ganglion cells that carries visual information to the brain

the light-insensitive point at which axons from all of the ganglion cells converge and exit the eyeball

part of the bottom surface of the brain where half of each optic nerve's fibers cross over to the opposite side of the brain

a region of the thalamus in which axons from most of the ganglion cells in the retina end and form synapses

an area at the back of the brain to which neurons in the lateral geniculate nucles relay visual input

cells in the vcortex that respond to a specific feature of an object

the essential "color", determined by the dominant wavelenght of light

the purity of a color

the sensation of the overall intensity of all of the wavelengths that make up light

a theory of color vision identifying three types of visual elements, each of which is most sensitive to differet wavelengths of light

a theory of color vision stating tha color-sensitive visual elements are grouped into red-green, blue-ello, and black-white elements

a blending of sensory experience that causes some people to "see" sounds or "taste"" colors

the sense of smell

the sense of taste

a brain structure that reveives messages regaring olfaction

chemicals released by one animal and detected by another tht shape the second animal's behavior or phsiology

a portion of the mammalian olfactory system that is sensitive to pheromones

structures on the tongue containing groups of taste receptors, or taste buds

a theory suggesting that a functional "gae" in the spinal cord can either let pain impulses travel upward to the brain or block their progress

the absence of pain sensations in the presence of a normally painful stimulus

the sensory system s that allow us to know about where we are and what each part of out body is doing

the proprioceptive sense that provides information about the position of the head (and hence the body) in space and about its movements

organs in the inner ear that connect the semicircular canals and the cochlea and contribute to the body's sense of balance

small crystals in the fluid filled vestibular sacs of the inner ear that, when shifted by gravity, stimulate nerve cells that inform the brain of the position of the head

tubes in the inner ear whse fluid, when shifted by head movements stimulates nerve cells that tell the brain about those movements

• the sense that tells you where the parts of your body are with respect to one anotherSocial Psychology
• the study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behavior influence, and are influenced by, the behavior of other

mental processes associated with people's perceptions of, and reactions to, other people

the way one thinks of oneself

the evaluation people make about how worth they are as human beings

using one's pervious performance or characteristics as a basis for judging oneself in the present

using other people as a basis of comparison for evaluating oneself

categories of people to which people compare themselves

the belief that, in comparison to a reference group, one is getting less than is deserved

the beliefs we hold about the groups to which we belong

mental representations that people form of themselves

the processes through which people interpret information about others, draw inferences about them, and develop mental representations of them

a process through which an initial impression of someone leads that person to behave in accordance with that impression

the process of explaining the causes of people's behavior; including the one's own

a bias toward overattributing the behavior of others to internal causes

the tendency to attribute other people's behavior to internal causes while attributing one's own behavior (especially errors and failures) to external causes

the tendency to attribute one's success to interal characteristics while blaming one's failures on external causes

a model suggesting that attritude change can be driven by evaluation of the content of a persuasive message (central route) or by irrelveant cues (peripheral route)

a theory asserting that attitude change is driven by efforts to reduce tension caused by inconsistencies between attitudes and behaviors

a theory suggesting that attitudes can change as people consider their behavior in certain situations and then infer what their attitude must be

false assumptions that all members of some group share the same characteristics

a positive or negative attitude toward an entire group of people

differential treatment of various groups; the behavioral component of prejudice

the idea that stereotypes and prejudice toward a group will diminish as contact with the group increases

the notion that people are most likely to form relationships with those who are similar to themselves in physical attractiveness

the process whereby one person's behavior is affected by the words or actions of others

socially based rules that prescribe what people should or should not do in various situations

a psychological state occurring in group members that results in loss of individuality and a tendency to do things not normally done when alone

a phenomenon in shich the presence of others improves a person's performance

a reduction in performance due to the presence of other people

exerting less effort when performing a group task than when performing the same task alone

changing one's behavior or beliefs to match those of others, generally as a result of real or imagined, though unspoken, group pressure

adjusting one's behavior because of an explicit or implicit request

a phenomenon whereby members of a numerical minority in a group alter the view of the majority

changing behavior in response to a demand from an authority figure

an act that is intended to cause harm to another person

a proposition that frustration always leads to some form of aggressive behavior

the study of the relationship between behavior and the physical environment

any act that is intended to benefit another person

an unselfish concern for another's welfare

a theory attributing people's helping behavior to their efforts to reduce the unpleasant arousal they feel in the face or somone's need or suffering

a phenomenon in which the chances that someone will help in an emergency decrease as the umber of people present increases

a theory suggesting that people help others because of empathy with their needs

any type of behavior in which people work together to attain a goal

behavior in which individuals try to attain a goal for themselves while denying that goal to others

the result of a person's or group's belief that another person or group's belief that another person of group stands in the way of their achieving a valued goal

situations in which actions that produce rewards for one indicidual will produce negative consequences if adopted by everyone

a social dilemma in which mutual cooperation guarantees the best mutual outcome

a situation in which people must share a common resource, creating conflicts between the short-term interests of individuals and the long-term interests of the group

a social situation in shich one person's gains are subtracted from another person's resources, so tht the sum of the gains and losses is zero

leaders who provide close supervision, lead by directives, and generally discourage group discussion

leaders who provide loose supervision, ask for group members' ideas, and are concerned with subordinates' feelings

• a pattern of thinking in which group members fail to evaluate realistically the wisdom of various options and decisionspsychopathy
• patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that are maladaptive, disruptive, or uncomfortable for those who are affected or for those with whom they come in contact

difficulty in fulfulling appropriate and expected family, social, and work-related roles

a view of mental disorders as caused by a combination of interacting biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors

a modern name for the midical model, in which psychological disorders are seen as reflecting disturbances in the anatomy and chemistry of the brain and in other biological processes

a view in which mental disorder is seen as arising from psychological processes

a way of looking at mental disorders in relation to gener, age, ethnicity, and other social and cultural factors

viewing psychological disorders as arising when a predisposition for a disorder combines with sufficient amounts of stress to trigger symptoms

a condition in which intense feeling of apprehension are long-standing and disruptive

an anxiety disorder involving strong, irrational fear of an object or situation that does not objectively justify such a reation

an anxiety disorder involving fear and aviodance of heights, animals, and other specific stimuli and situations

an anxiety disorder involving strong, irrational fears relating to social situations

an anxiety disorder involving stong fear of being alone or away from the security of home

a condition that involves relatively mild but long-lasting anxiety that is not focused on any partifulat object or situation

an anxiety disorder involving sudden panic attacks

an anxiety disorder involving repetitive thoughts and urges to perform certain rituals

psychological problems in which there are symptoms of a physical disorder without a physical cause

a somatoform disorder in which a person displays blindess, deafness, or other symptioms of sensory or motor failure without a physical cause

a somatoform disorder involving stong, unjustified fear of physical illness

somatoform disorders in which there are numerous physical complaints without verfied physical illness

a somatoform disorder marked by complaints of severe pain with no physical cause

rare conditions that involve sudden and usually tempirary disruptions in a person's memory consciousness, or identity

a dissociative disorder involving sudden loss of memory and the assumption of a new identity in a new locale

a dissociatvie disorder involving sudden loss of memory

a dissociative disorder in which a person reports having more than one identity

conditions in which a person experiences extreme moods, such as depression or mania

a mood disorder in which a person feels sad and hopeless for weeks or months

false beliefs, such as those experienced by people suffering from schizophrenia or extreeme depression

a mood disorder involving a pattern of comparatively mild depression that lasts for at least two years

an elated, very active emotional state

a mood disorder in which a person alternates between deep depression and mania

a severe and disabling pattern of disturbed thinking, emotion, perception, and behavior

delusions of grandeur or persecution; anger; anxiety; argumentativeness; extreme jealousy; onset often sudden; signs of impairment may be subtle

delusions; hallucinations; incoherent speech; facial grimaces; inappropriate laughter/ gigggling; neglected personal hygiene; loss of bladder/ bowel control

disordered movement , alternating between total immobility and wild excitement.

patterns of disordered behatio, thought, and emotion that do not fall easily into any other subtype

applies to people who have had prior episodes of schitz buy are not currently displaying sysmptoms

a symptom of disorder in which people perceive voices or other stimuli when there are no stimuli present

Schiz symptoms such as disorganized thoughts, hallucinations, and delusions

schiz symptoms such as absence of pleasure, lack of speech, and flat affect

long-standing, inflexible ways of behaving that create a variety of problems

a personality disorder involving impulsive, selfish, unscrupulous, even criminal behavior

devopment of a physical need for a psychoactive drug

a pattern of drinking that may lead to addiction and almost always causes sever social, physical, and other problems

the treatment of psychological disorders through talking and other psychological methods

medical doctors who have completed special training in the treatment of psychological disorders

among therapists, those whose education includes completion of a master's or (usualy) a doctoral degree in clinical or counseling psychology, often followed by additional specialty

a method of psychotherapy that seks to help clients gain insight by recognizing and understanding unconscious thoughts and emotion

a therapy that allows the client to decide what to talk about, without direction, judgment, or interpretation from the therapist

a therapist attitude that conveys a caring for, and acceptance of, the client as a valued person

the therapist's attempt to appreciate and understand how the world looks from the client's point of view

an active listening method in which a therapist conveys empathy by paraphrasing clients' statements and noting accompanying feelings

a consistency between the way therapists feel and the way they act toward clients

an active treatment designed to help clients get in touch with genuine feelings and disown foreign ones

treatments that use classical conditioning principles to change behavior

treatments that use operant conditioning methods to change behavior

learning-based treatment methods that help clients change the way they think, as well as the way they behave

a behavioral treatment for anxiety in which clients visualize a graduated series of anxiety-provoking stimuli while remaining relaxed

demonstrating desirable behaviors as a way of teaching them to cleints

methods for teaching clients how to interact with others more comfortably and effectively

a therapy method that uses rewards to strenthen desirable behaviors

a system for imprving the behavior of intitutionalized clients in which desirable behaviors are rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for desired items or activities

the gradual disappearance of a conditioned response or operant behavior through nonreinforcement

a procedure for reducing anxiety that involves keeping a person in a feared, but harmles, situation

a method that uses classical conditioning to create a negative response to a particular stimulus

a therapy method that weakens undesirable behavior by following it with an unpleasant stimulus

a treatment designed to identify and change self-defeating thoughts that lead to anxiety and other symptoms or disorder

a treatment in which the therapist helps clients to notice and change negative thoughts associated with anxiety and depression

psychotherapy involving several unrelated clients

treatment of two or more individuals from the same family

a form of therapy focusing on improving communication between partners

treatments whose effects have been validated by controlled experimental research

brief electrival shock administered to the brain, usually to reduce depression that does not respond to drug treatment

surgical procedures that destroy tissue in small regions of the brain in an effort to treat psychological disorders

drugs that alleviate the symptoms of severe disorders such as schizophrenia

drugs that relieve depression

drugs that reduce feelings of anxiety

a movement to minimize or prevent psychological disorders through changes in social systems and through community mental health programs