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Cellular Respiration
The process by which the orgainic molecules are converted to usable energy using an electron transport chain
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Metabolism
The ___________ of glucose is used as the model of cellular respiration because the pathways are well known and occur in most organisms
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The type of cellular respiration most commonly used by animals, plants, fungi, and most bacteria is
Aerobic cellular respiration
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Examples of Coenzymes are
NAD, FAD
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NAD stands for?
nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide
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FAD stands for?
flavin adenine dinucleotide
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when the coenzymes NAD and FAD accept hydrogen they become
NADH & FADH
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Cellular respiration can be summarized in which 4 steps?
Glycolysis, Formation of Acetyl CoA, Kreb's cycle, and the Electron Transport System
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Glycolyis is
a series of about 10 systematically catalyzed reactions occuring in the cytoplasm of the cell. Glucose is converted in two molecules of pyruvate. and ATP and NADH are produced.
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Glucose is?
a six carbon sugar
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Pyruvate is?
a three carbon compound
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Formation of acetyl CoA happens when?
pyruvate is transported into the mitochondrion and converted to a two carbon acetyl group. this acetyl group combines coenzyme A to form Acetyl CoA. Carbon dioxide and NADH are produced. This occurs twice for each glucose that is degraded
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Krebs Cycles is known alternatively as
citric acid cycle and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle
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Kreb's cycle
the remaining carbons of the acetyl group of acetyl-CoA are degraded into carbon dioxide and several molecules of NADH, FADH 2 and ATP are produced. this occurs twice for every glucose that is degraded
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Electron transport system (ETS)
Consists of a series of carrier proteins in a chain that transports hydrogen protons and electrons. these hydrogens come from the NADH and FADH 2 that was produced in the Kreb's cycle. The electrons travel along the chain to the final electron acceptor which is oxygen. The protons form a gradient between the inner and outer membranes of the mitochondrion and participate in ATP formation during Chemiosmosis. Eventually the protons rejoin the electrons and oxygen at the end of the ETS to form water.
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The two most common fermentation pathways are
lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation
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A dye which serves as a redox indicator
Methylene Blue
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Yeast cells become ______ when ______ ________ is oxidized but will become ______ when _____ _____ is reduced
blue, methylene blue, colorless, methylene blue
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use oxygen and an electron transport system when O2 is available but use fermentation when O2 is not available
facultative anaerobes
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When electrons are lost by a molecule, the molecule is said to be oxidized; however, when the molecules gain electrons, the molecules are said to be ________?
reduced
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What color are yeast cells containing reduced methylene blue?
Colorless
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What might the yeast cells containing reduced methylene blue be doing?
breaking down glucose
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What color are yeast cells containing oxidized methylene blue?
Blue
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Distinguish between Aerobes and facultative anaerobes
oxygen is needed in aerobes
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If oxygen is available how many ATP's can a cell produce from one glucose molecule using aerobic cellular respiration?
.5
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name the cell location where glycolysis occurs
cytoplasm
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what phase of cellular respiration breaks down glucose into pyruvate
fermentation
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where in the cell do the Kreb's cycle and ETS reaction occur?
chemiosmosis
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What are two molecules that transport hydrogen to the ETS
NAD & FAD
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What is the final electron acceptor in the ETS during aerobic cellular respiration?
Oxygen
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What are the end products of aerobic cellular respiration
Co2, alcohol, and heat
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what are the end products of lactic acid fermentation
Lactic acid, 2 ATP
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How many ATP molecules are produced by fermentation
2
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What is the advantage to an organism having the ability to use both aerobic cellular respiration and fermentation
Can gain energy with or without o2
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The entire range of radiant energy is called the
spectrum
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the portion of the radiant energy that our eyes are capable of seeing is known as the
visible spectrum
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Photons
are units of light energy which we characterize as having a certain wavelength
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the distance between successive wave crests
wavelength
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the wavelength of visible light is between ______ and ______ nanometers
390-760 nm
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the process whereby plants capture solar energy and store a portion of this as chemical energy
photosynthesis
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the process of creating organic compounds from atmospheric CO2 is referred to as
CO2 Fixation or Carbon
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the plant cellular organelles which contain chlorophyll
Chloroplasts
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The green pigment largely responsible for capturing solar energy used for CO2 fixation
Chlorophyll
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light production accompanying the rapid decay of excited electrons returning to their ground state
Fluoresence
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the process of separating various photosynthectic pigments
Chromatography
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Plant cells are all interconnected by little tunnels called
Plasmodesmata
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a layer of cells that run along both the top and bottom of a leaf is known as
epidermis
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a thin transparent coating along the upper surface of a leaf which does not consist of cells is called the
cuticle
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a layer of closely packed elongated cells located directly below the uper epidermis
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Loosely packed cells with many air spaces which functions primarily in absorbing CO2. This must present a plant cell wall surface moist with water so that CO2 can dissolve in it and move into the cells
Spongy mesophyll
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along the epidermis, gps in the epidermis filled with two smaller cells. these are pores called the
stomata
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the two small cells that open and close the pore are called _____ cells. when the leaf is losing too much water by evaporation from the spongy mesophyll these cells close the pore
guard
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Darker stained cells bounded by other special cells. this is the vascular system of the plant, which transports water, organic carbon, and minerals throughout the plant body
Vascular bundle
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referred to as asexual cell division, because it is the type of division used by an organism to increase cell number, to grow, to repair, and to replace injured or aging cells
mitosis
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sexual cell division, it produces gametes (sex cells such as eggs and sperm)
Meiosis
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sex cells such as eggs and sperm
gametes
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process by which the cytoplasm divides
cytokinesis
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preceeding and following each mitosis a cell completes this stage. during this stage the cell prepares for the next division.
interphase
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The cellular activities of interphase and mitosis are combined to form the ____ ______
cell cycle
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the most biochemically active stage of the entire cell cycle
interphase
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Interphase is separated into 3 sub phases
G Growth phase 1, S(DNA synthesis phase) G2(growth phase 2)
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double stranded chromosome
dyad
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- no filamentous or rod-shaped chromosomes present. the chromosomes are uncoiled and very diffuse. - the nucleus may appear to contain small specks of chromsome material - a nucleus is obvious in each cell - one or more nucleoli are present in each nucleus as large darkly stained bodies
characteristics to observe in a cell undergoing interphase
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- the chromosomes coil tightly and appear as filaments or rods
- the chromosomes you see represent some degree of coiling
- the nucleolus disappears
- the nucleus and nuclear envelope disappear
- a spindle composed of small microtubules appears
- Centrioles present in some animal cells but not plant cells separate and move to opposite cell poles
- in animal cells, astral rays of microtubules extend from centrioles in a direction opposite that of the spindle
During prophase these events occur
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- Chromosomes are highly coiled and appear as rods
- chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers and line up in single line equidistant between the ends of the spindle.
Metaphase - second stage of mitosis
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- The monads of the chromosomes separate at the centromere
- the spindle fibers shorten and pull the monads towards opposite ends of the spindle. when the monads of the centromer separate, one monad from each chromosome is pulled to the end of the spindle; as a result, identical groups or monads are pulled to each of the spindle. the chromosomes are now single stranded again
Anaphase the third stage of mitosis
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- the monads cluster around each end of the spindle
- the monads uncoil and become more diffuse
- the spindle disentegrates
- the nucleus and nuclear envelope reappear
- the nucleolus reappears
- cytokinesis occurs
Telophase the final stage of mitosis
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Animal cells constrict around the cell equator (from a cleavage furrow) until the cell splits into two new cells
cytokinesis in animal cells
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begins in the interior of the cell in an area called the cell plate; the cell plate is visible as a dark line bisecting the spindle
Cytokinesis in plant cells
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One set of chromosomes is called the ______ number
haploid
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two sets of chromosomes is known as the ________ number
diploid
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if the total number is 2 then those two chromosomes look alike. the look alike chromosomes are known as
homologs
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bears two sister chromatids
dyads
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microtubules that radiate from the centromere like rays from a star
aster rays
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two centromeres plus the radiating microtubules are called
meiotic spindle apparatus
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when chromosomes first appear they are long, thin, paired and in _______ that is very closely attached to one another
synapsis
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when synapsed together the pair of homologs is called a _______ because they have four chromatids between them
tetrad
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the exchange of segments between neighboring chromatids is called
crossing over
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the paird homologs next move to the center of the nucleus to a place called the metaphase plate. there one of the homologs will lie on one side of the plate while the other lies on the opposite side of the plate. the homologs will be held in place by kinetochore microtubules which are only attached to one side of the cetromere facing athe poles.
Metaphase I
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the kinetochore microtubules attached to the centromere of each homolog will begin to shorten and pull the homologs toward the poles. this causes half of the homologs to go to one pole and the other half to the opposite pole
anaphase I
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Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm then takes place and 2 daughter cells, each with half of the original number of chromosomes are produced
telophase I
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the second interphase does not involve any replication of chromosomes. it is only a transitory phase which may be missing some organisms
Interphase II
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The second meiotic division has 4 phases just like meiosis I
Meiosis II
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the chromosomes and spindle apparatus reappear as the nuclear envelope disappears. the chromosomes appear singly as dyads and there is no synapsis or crossing over observed at this time.
Prophase II
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the chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate, and each chromosome is held there by the kinetochore microtubules that extend from each side of the centromere toward the opposite poles
Metaphase II
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The kinetochore microtubules shorten and each sister chromatid is withdrawn toward the centromere at the poles. thsi process reduces the dyads and monads
Anaphase II
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Cytokinesis is visible. in animal cells furrowing takes place, but in plant cells, new cell walls are formed between the four cells. The chromosomes are also no longer visible during this stage of the cycle and new nuclear envelopes are formed
Telophase II
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testis and ovary are known as this
gonads
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In the gonads are process called _____________ takes place during which diploid cells called spermatogonia in males and oogonia in females undergo meiotic changes which eventually generate gametes
Gametogenesis
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in male humans the process of gametogenesis is called
Spermatogenesis
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In the female the process of egg generation is called _______
oogenesis
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_______ cleavage is when the entire egg divides into two daughter cells called _________
Holoblastic, blastomeres
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when only part of the egg divides
meroblastic cleavage
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the three cell layers of the gastrula are the
ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm
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The _______ is the cavity, whose opening is the blastopore
Archenteron
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the inner lining of the uterus is called the
endometrium
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study of the passing of genetic information from parent to offspring
Transmission genetics
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a form of gene such as the dominant T or the recessive t gene froms
allele
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the expression of a set of genes (tall or short)
phenotype
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the actual pair of genes that produces an expressed phenotype (TT, Tt, or tt)
genotype
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expressed alleles or phenotypes when homozygous (AA) or heterozygous (Aa)
Dominant
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a gene that is unexpressed when paired with a dominant gene
Recessive
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The physical location of a gene form on a chromosome (plural is loci)
locus
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Paired alleles that are either dominant TT or recessive tt
homozygous
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paired alleles that are unalike Tt
heterozygous
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three or more forms of a gene, any of which can occupy a specific locus
multiple alleles
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